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1 Timothy 6 Slavery, Wealth, False Teaching, and Final Encouragement

St. Paul Writing His Epistles probably by Valentin de Boulogne (1618-1620)

1 Timothy 6: 1-2a

Bolded text has notes on translation below.

¹ Let all who are under the yoke of slavery regard their masters as worthy of all honor, so that the name of God and the teaching may not be blasphemed. ² Those who have believing masters must not be disrespectful to them on the ground that they are brothers and sisters; rather, they must serve them all the more, since those who benefit by their service are believers and beloved.

The Ephesus that Paul writes to in 1 Timothy is a very different world than our modern minds are used to. The views on sexuality, the place of women in worship, expectations of leaders, expectations of families in relation to their parents, and now slavery are all challenging topics that should invite discussion. It is also important to acknowledge that these texts have been used to impose the worldview of the ancient world or to resist the movements for change for women, enslaved people, and other groups throughout history. I do believe that as 2 Timothy states:

All scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness 2 Timothy 3:16

Engaging in the places where scripture is challenging should allow us to refine our values and why we hold them so that we may be trained to embody righteousness in our own time.

Slavery in the ancient world, particularly in the Roman empire of Paul’s time, was a part of the way that the world was ordered. Paul did not defend slavery, but he also did not condemn it. In Philemon Paul speaks on behalf of the runaway slave Onesimus and encourages him to be received back as “more than a slave, a beloved brother” (16) but acknowledges Philemon’s role as Onesimus’s master and his ability to make decisions about his slave’s future. Ephesians 6:5-8 and Colossians 3:22-24 include master/slave relations as a part of the household codes with expectations for both masters and slaves, but not challenging the reality of slavery in the Roman world. Paul is not alone in this. 1 Peter 2: 18-25, the Didache 4:10, and several other early Christian documents operate with the understanding that slavery was a part of the ordering of the Roman world. Thomas Long makes a helpful analogy when he states:

The Pastor could no more envision a society this side of heaven in which there was no slavery than those of us raised in the 1950s and 1960s could imagine the digital world we now inhabit. (Long, 2016, p. 166)

Slavery in Rome was not based on any racial dynamic. Many slaves were captured in the wars the Roman empire fought which brought slaves from Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Many scholars once believed that most slavery in the Roman world was for a fixed number of years and that it allowed opportunities for advancement, but that is now highly debated. Some slaves could operate with immense power on behalf of their master, and that is the world envisioned in many of Jesus’s parables, but slavery was a massive portion of the economy in Roman society.

Before I comment directly on the text, I want to briefly talk about slavery as it is understood in the history of the United States. The reality of chattel slavery in the United States was very different from the ancient world. Instead of being predominantly urban it was predominantly rural. It underwrote the economy in the southern United States, particularly the farming of cotton. One dynamic was that the slaves in the United States, brought forcibly from Africa, was that they were viewed as less human than their white masters. Willie James Jennings in his book The Christian Imagination: Theology and the Origins of Race discusses a deformed Christian imagination which allowed generations of missionaries, priests, bishops, as well as everyday Christians to be unable to see the common humanity of the people indigenous to Africa, Asia and the New World. Throughout the era of colonization, the colonizers practiced an inverted hospitality where they assumed that the land, the resources, and even the people were there in service to them. Yet, the same scripture read by the colonizers would eventually be read in a new light by abolitionist, slaves, and the colonized. One critical difference for Paul is that both the slaves and the masters were brothers and sisters sharing both a common humanity and a common calling in Christ.

Paul only addresses the slaves and not the masters in 1 Timothy, and it is plausible that once again Paul is addressing a problem that has emerged as both slaves and masters hear the language of being brothers and sisters in Christ while living as master/slave in the household. Those under the yoke of slavery are commanded to regard their masters as worthy of honor (tima, the same term in the previous chapter for true widows and worthy elders are entitled to). Many of the slaves in the community may not have served believing masters and actions of disrespect towards their masters may be bringing suspicion to the communities in the eyes of the surrounding community. For those whose masters were believers they may be asserting their equality in the household or refusing to serve. There is no evidence in Paul’s letters of rebellion, but the view of the masters was likely diminished in the eyes of their slaves. As Luke Timothy Johnson states:

In the ancient world, such attitudinal derogation was almost worse than open rebellion, for it more effectively subverted the social order. (Johnson, 2001, p. 288)

Yet, Paul’s language is not as one sided as the English renders it. The word translated “serve them” (euergesia) is a word of benefaction, something normally reserved for those in power. Paul’s language indicates that the slave serving the master is done from a position of power. Paul will call the believing masters believers and beloved suggesting that the slave and master share a bond that remains distinctive to their shared commitment to Jesus. I’m not willing to go quite as far as Luke Timothy Johnson to state that Paul’s language here may be more liberating than his diplomacy with Philemon (Johnson, 2001, p. 290) but Paul throughout his letters has attempted to find a way to manage the realities of being brothers and sisters in the church (ekklesia) with the realities of men and women, slave and master, rich and poor in the Roman household (oikos). Paul, like Christians of all times, live in the hope of the new creation but must continue to function in the environment and expectations of their time.

1 Timothy 6: 2b-19

Teach and urge these duties. ³ Whoever teaches otherwise and does not agree with the sound words of our Lord Jesus Christ and the teaching that is in accordance with godliness ⁴ is conceited, understanding nothing, and has a morbid craving for controversy and for disputes about words. From these come envy, dissension, slander, base suspicions, ⁵ and wrangling among those who are depraved in mind and bereft of the truth, imagining that godliness is a means of gain. ⁶ Of course, there is great gain in godliness combined with contentment, ⁷ for we brought nothing into the world, so that we can take nothing out of it, ⁸ but if we have food and clothing, we will be content with these. ⁹ But those who want to be rich fall into temptation and are trapped by many senseless and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction. ¹⁰ For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil, and in their eagerness to be rich some have wandered away from the faith and pierced themselves with many pains.

¹¹ But as for you, man of God, shun all this; pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance, gentleness. ¹² Fight the good fight of the faith; take hold of the eternal life to which you were called and for which you made the good confession in the presence of many witnesses. ¹³ In the presence of God, who gives life to all things, and of Christ Jesus, who in his testimony before Pontius Pilate made the good confession, I charge you ¹⁴ to keep the commandment without spot or blame until the manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ, ¹⁵ which he will bring about at the right time—he who is the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords. ¹⁶ It is he alone who has immortality and dwells in unapproachable light, whom no one has ever seen or can see; to him be honor and eternal dominion. Amen.
¹⁷ As for those who in the present age are rich, command them not to be haughty or to set their hopes on the uncertainty of riches but rather on God, who richly provides us with everything for our enjoyment. ¹⁸ They are to do good, to be rich in good works, generous, and ready to share, ¹⁹ thus storing up for themselves the treasure of a good foundation for the future, so that they may take hold of the life that really is life.

Paul encourages Timothy to continue to teach and urge the congregation to maintain their responsibilities in the church and the home. Those teaching otherwise (heterodidaskalia– literally another or other teaching) are in contrast with the healthy (hugianousin where our modern word hygiene comes from) words received from Jesus and the teaching in accordance with godliness (eusebia one of Paul’s favorite words throughout this letter, as mentioned before it has elements of religion, piety, godliness and it involves the entire practice of faith). In contrast to the healthy words of Jesus are the sick (nouson NRSVue morbid) words which crave controversy and are deluded[1] disputing about words. From these other teachings, which have wandered away from the healthy words received from Jesus, spring a list of vices which end with the idea of eusebia (religion/piety) being utilized for gain.

The idea of religion/piety being utilized for personal gain is a theme that emerges throughout history. Jesus criticized religious leaders in his time who:

As he taught, he said, “Beware of the scribes, who like to walk around in long robes and to be greeted with respect in the marketplaces and to have the best seats in the synagogues and places of honor at banquets! They devour widows’ houses and for the sake of appearance say long prayers. They will receive the greater condemnation.” Mark 12: 38-40

Paul makes it clear that elders who teach well are worthy of honor (tima) which includes financial compensation, but it is plausible that some leaders have emerged who have utilized their position in the community to benefit their honor and financial status. It is also highly likely that the financial troubles of some of the widows in the community may be related to these teachers who in Paul’s view have misled these women.

It is also important to acknowledge that reading 1 Timothy, along with the other New Testament letters, undermines the sociological assumption that I was taught in seminary: that the early Christians all came from among the poor. Summarizing several themes from the letter Luke Timothy Johnson points out:

We have already seen that some believers were slave owners (6:1-2). Some women were able at worship to make a display of their extravagant clothing, hairdos, and jewelry (2:9). Some families were in the position to support the poor widows of their households (5:4, 8, 16). I have already suggested that the presence of such visible wealth presented temptations to leaders. …Paul takes pain to ensure that supervisors and helpers not be lovers of money (3:3) or do anything for a profit (3:8). (Johnson, 2001, pp. 302-303)

Paul points to a godliness (eusebia) combined with contentment (autarkeia) in contrast with the use of godliness for gain. Autarkeia is an important virtue for Stoics and Cynics, but Paul is not opposed to using an idea from the surrounding culture to communicate how the life of faith is practiced. Paul uses the same term in Philippians 4:11, ”Not that I am referring to being in need, for I have learned to be content (autarkeia) with whatever I have.” In contrast those who are not content and desire to be rich are faced with many destructive temptations.

The most famous verse in 1 Timothy is verse ten, and the NRSVue correctly identifies that “the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil.” Most earlier translations added the exclusive “the” which is not present in the Greek. The exclusive translations seem to indicate in this proverb that the love of money is the only root of evil, but the Greek indicates that this desire is one among the many roots. Yet, it is a critical root and Paul will return one additional time to how followers of Jesus with wealth are to act to prevent them from wandering away from the faith and being pierced by many pains.

Paul turns again to Timothy encouraging him to pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance, and gentleness instead of wealth. Fight the good fight here is the language of sports, unlike 1:18 where the Greek is the language of military conflict, where Timothy is encourage to strive towards the life of the new age (NRSVue eternal life) which Timothy has confessed. This is one of only three times where Pilate is given the title Pontius in the bible[2] and Jesus’s confession before Pilate likely refers to a narrative similar to the passion narrative of either the synoptic gospels or the gospel of John. This may also indicate an early confession emerging among the church where Pilate’s title is linked to his person as occurs in the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds. Paul and Timothy await the manifestation of Jesus which will be brought about in God’s time (kairos).[3] The language of verse fifteen and sixteen may have been a confession of faith utilized in the Ephesian communities. The statement that no one has ever seen God likely originates in God’s words to Moses in Exodus 33:20 and echoes in the conclusion of the prologue of John’s gospel:” No one has ever seen God. It is the only Son, himself God, who is close to the Father’s heart, who has made him known.” (John 1:18)

Paul returns to how those with wealth are to live as believers. One of the dangers throughout the bible related to wealth is that the wealthy one believes they are self-reliant and they fail to acknowledge the gifts they have received from God. The love of money may be a root of all kinds of evil, but Paul does not view wealth as inherently evil. If they have been given wealth, they are to use that wealth to be generous, do good, and share. Paul echoes the language of the gospels of storing up treasures (Matthew 6: 19-20; 19:21; Luke 12:21, 33-34). Engaging wealth as a gift to be generous with rather than something to be loved and sought after enables the faithful one to take hold of the life that really is life.

1 Timothy 6: 20-21

²⁰ Timothy, guard the deposit entrusted to you. Avoid the profane chatter and contradictions of what is falsely called knowledge; ²¹ by professing it some have missed the mark as regards the faith.
Grace be with you.

Paul closes with a final reminder to Timothy to protect the gospel he learned from Paul in the face of competing messages. This other teaching is falsely named (Greek pseudonumoo- pseudonym) knowledge. Other in Ephesus, and likely elsewhere, have focused on the wrong thing and missed the mark. Timothy is to hold fast and guard the precious gift of faith he has received and Paul closes the letter wishing for grace to rest upon his young delegate trying restore order and unity in faith to this community which has been fractured by bad teaching and harmful practices.

[1] Jouette Bassler notes that deluded is a better translation of tetyphotai than the NRSVue’s conceited. (Bassler, 1996, p. 109)

[2] See also Luke 3:1, Acts 4:27.

[3] Kairos time as opposed to chronos (chronological) time is appointed time or special time. Within the world of the New Testament is was time appointed by God for a specific purpose.

1 Timothy 5 Helping Timothy Manage the Elders and Widows in Ephesus

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An Old Woman Reading, Probably the Prophetess Hannah by Rembrandt (1631)

1 Timothy 5

Highlighted words have notes on translation below.

¹ Do not speak harshly to an older man, but speak to him as to a father, to younger men as brothers, ² to older women as mothers, to younger women as sisters—with absolute purity.
³ Honor widows who are really widows. ⁴ If a widow has children or grandchildren, they should first learn their religious duty to their own family and make some repayment to their parents, for this is pleasing in God’s sight. ⁵ The real widow, left alone, has set her hope on God and continues in supplications and prayers night and day, ⁶ but the widow who lives for pleasure is dead even while she lives. ⁷ Give these commands as well, so that they may be above reproach. ⁸ And whoever does not provide for relatives, and especially for family members, has denied the faith and is worse than an unbeliever.
⁹ Let a widow be put on the list if she is not less than sixty years old and has been married only once; ¹⁰ she must be well attested for her good works, as one who has brought up children, shown hospitality, washed the saints’ feet, helped the afflicted, and devoted herself to doing good in every way. ¹¹ But refuse to put younger widows on the list, for when their sensual desires alienate them from Christ, they want to marry, ¹² and so they incur condemnation for having violated their first pledge. ¹³ Besides that, they learn to be idle, gadding about from house to house, and they are not merely idle but also gossips and busybodies, saying what they should not say. ¹⁴ So I would have younger widows marry, bear children, and manage their households, so as to give the adversary no occasion to revile us. ¹⁵ For some have already turned away to follow Satan. ¹⁶ If any believing woman has relatives who are widows, let her assist them; let the church not be burdened, so that it can assist those who are real widows.
¹⁷ Let the elders who rule well be considered worthy of double honor, especially those who labor in preaching and teaching, ¹⁸ for the scripture says, “You shall not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain” and “The laborer deserves to be paid.” ¹⁹ Never accept any accusation against an elder except on the evidence of two or three witnesses. ²⁰ As for those who persist in sin, rebuke them in the presence of all, so that the rest also may stand in fear. ²¹ In the presence of God and of Christ Jesus and of the elect angels, I warn you to keep these instructions without prejudice, doing nothing on the basis of partiality. ²² Do not ordain anyone hastily, and do not participate in the sins of others; keep yourself pure.
²³ No longer drink only water, but take a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent ailments.
²⁴ The sins of some people are conspicuous and precede them to judgment, while the sins of others follow them there. ²⁵ So also good works are conspicuous, and even when they are not, they cannot remain hidden.

Throughout this chapter the duties of the household (Greek oikos) and the duties of the church (Greek ekklesia) are brought together to address two specific groups in the church in Ephesus. The bulk of the discussion is focused on widows (Greek chera) but is bracketed by the discussion of relating to and disciplining elders/older men (Greek presbyteros). Although the two initial verses open with four groups: older men/elders, younger men, older women, and younger women; younger men do not enter into the discussion of the chapter but the proper role of older and younger women does heavily enter the discussion of the obligation of the household and the church in relation to widows.

Modern readers who come from a society with much greater opportunities for women may feel that Paul is attempting to unfairly suppress the role of women throughout 1 Timothy. Addressing issues related to women occupy a large portion of the letter, and as Luke Timothy Johnson highlights:

Certainly, there is some sort of unrest among the women in the Ephesian church. They are wearing expensive clothing and extravagant hairdos in the assembly (2: 9-10) and are asserting the right to teach there (2: 11-15). In this chapter, we see some of them charged with self-indulgence (5:6) and with being gossipers as they move from house to house, saying things they should not (5:13). Neither is there any doubt that Paul proposes that women generally should be in subordination (2:11) and that younger women should remain in domestic roles (2:15; 5:14). (Johnson, 2001, p. 271)

We know that one of the false teachings that Paul is confronting in this letter is teachers forbidding marriage (4:3) which may be creating a group of women who are reliant on the church, and perhaps these false teachers for support. The word translated widow (chera) refers at its most fundamental level to a woman living without a husband. The most common meaning is a woman whose husband has died, but it is not the only meaning. (Bassler, 1996, p. 93) One educated guess at the situation Paul is addressing is that the false teachers have created a group of younger women, claiming the title of widows, who are creating a financial strain on the church and without having a household to manage are moving from home to home in the community creating issues. More on this possibility below, but prior to dealing with this potential group of women Paul deals with the responsibilities of every member of the community of faith (ekklesia) for their household.

Honoring widows who are truly widows is not merely paying respect. Underlying this discussion is the commandment to ‘honor one’s father and mother.” The expectation of the commandment on honoring parents is that children would support and care for their parents in their old age. Children and grandchildren of a widow cannot abandon the responsibilities of the household by expecting the church to care for their mothers/grandmothers who cannot care for themselves. As mentioned in chapter two, there are very few opportunities for women in the ancient world to support themselves and widows without a family to support them are one of the primary vulnerable populations, along with orphans and foreigners, highlighted throughout the scriptures. Children and grandchildren in scriptures, as well as the expectation of the ancient world, has a duty to care for their parents. Paul in verse four brings together the word for household (oikos) and the word for religion/piety/religious responsibility (eusebias) to link the expectation both within the church and the family that children/grandchildren/relatives care for their vulnerable women family members. Failure to provide for a family members is a denial of the faith and they are unfaithful (apistia-literally without faith) and bad/evil (kakos). Before the community of faith assumes the responsibility of caring for the widows the expectation is that the household would care for its own allowing the church to care for the widows who have no one to rely upon except God and God’s people.

It is plausible that there were widows who were cared for by their families and still expected additional support from the church and these may have been some of the women dressing in fine clothing and jewelry that Paul criticized in chapter two. Paul attempts to limit the widows cared for by the church by wanting them to be sixty years old or older, an age beyond the expectation to remarry. To be the wife of one man has a similar range of interpretive options highlighted in the discussion of overseers and deacons in chapter two. To be honored and financially compensated there also is the expectation of a life well lived according to the values of the culture: doing good deeds, raising children, showing hospitality, washing feet, and helping the afflicted. I disagree with James D. G. Dunn’s evaluation that washing feet showed the lower status of widows and wives. (NIB XI: 819) Instead, foot washing was a mark of communal service expected of disciples (John 13) and was likely a practice of the early churches. For these widows, who were given not only respect but also financial support by the congregation, they were expected to live a life that modeled the expectations of both the household in the ancient world (oikos) and the church (ekklesia).

The instructions given for younger widows are likely to come from the struggles Timothy is attempting to deal with in Ephesus. I do find it plausible that some of the teachers who had been forbidding marriage had created a group of women who were straining the economic resources of the church and perhaps creating dissension as they moved among households without the responsibilities of their own household to manage. When we bring our modern expectations of relationships into this passage, we misunderstand the world Paul is addressing. Relationships in the ancient world were primarily an economic arrangement with romantic implications instead of romantic relationships with economic implications. Most marriages in the ancient world were arranged marriages. We may view things very differently in our time, but being married, bearing children, and managing a household were the inherited expectations of women. This is why being a widow or being barren is such an existential threat in the ancient world for women. The term utilized for managing a household (oikodespot– house ‘despot’/lord) is used frequently in Matthew’s gospel in Jesus’ parables to describe the master of a household.[1] Although women and men exercised different roles in the household, women had significant responsibilities in managing a household in the ancient world often freeing men to participate in a more public way in the society. Women without this role in the ancient world, especially if they were separated from their parental home, would be economically vulnerable and likely relied both on the church and individual households.

I want to avoid speculating too much on the young ‘widows’ and the elders and any real or perceived sexual impropriety occurring in these Ephesian congregations, but it is worth noting that Paul three times calls for Timothy to be pure (4:12; 5:2, 22) and in this chapter he is to be pure with ‘younger women’ and ‘not participate in the sins of others.’ These young ‘widows’ who may have pledged themselves to Christ likely find themselves envying the security and relationships of other women in the community. These young ‘widows’ are accused by Paul of spreading gossip[2] and being busybodies who are creating problems for the community and possibly in households as well. Their actions have given external adversaries reasons to view the community with suspicion and have perhaps pulled some away from the faith through following these false teachers or by discrediting the congregation by its inability to manage these women.

The chapter begins by telling Timothy not to speak harshly/sharply rebuke[3] an elder/older man (Greek presbyter). Now in verse seventeen the discussion returns to elders (presbyters) and the contrast between an elder who ‘rules well’ and one in need of correction before God and the community. A good elder is worthy of double honor (tima the same term used for ‘real widows’ being honored) and it is possible that this indicates a worthy elder is to be compensated twice what a widow is, but although the Paul’s quotations indicate that elders are paid, the double amount may be too literal of a reading. The elders who toil in preaching (literally the word) and teaching are highlighted here. Paul quotes Deuteronomy 25:4 and a saying of Jesus that will be included in Matthew 10:10 and Luke 10:7. Although the gospels were probably not written[4] the early communities did likely have a collection of stories and sayings of Jesus that they shared and echo in the Pauline and other early letters. The requirement of multiple witnesses to accept an accusation against an elder follows the expectations of Deuteronomy 19: 15 which requires multiple witness to convict any person. Yet those who are accused and continue in their sin are to be brought before God, Christ, and the elect angels[5] presumably within the assembled congregation. Timothy is charged not to quickly lay hands on a person, presumably referring to the laying on of hands by the elders in which Timothy was appointed to his leadership role in the church[6], to not share in the sins of others, and to remain pure. Timothy is cautioned not to quickly grant authority before the individual has demonstrated they are worthy of the trust bestowed on them.

The note to no longer drink only water can be read in two ways. A water only regimen in the ancient world may not reflect a dietary choice but may be a statement of an ascetic lifestyle and may be reflecting some of the actions of the false teachers. (Long, 2016, p. 158) It is possible that Timothy, in attempting to bring back some of these false teachers and their followers, is adopting some of their practices to attempt to reach these members and Paul is counseling him not to do so. Yet the mention of the stomach and frequent ailments presents another possibility. Water in the ancient world was a frequent source of bacteria and infections. There was no water purification and ancient sanitary practices, especially in a large city, could easily impact water quality. Wine was often viewed as a safer and more sanitary option than water. With Timothy’s responsibilities it is possible to imagine him in the way James D.G. Dunn does:

But in context we can perhaps imagine an unduly serious young man whose heavy responsibilities caused him considerable stress, manifested in stomach cramps and other ailments. (NIB XI: 823)

Perhaps Paul is merely giving some guidance for a young leader who struggles to care for himself as he ministers to these challenging communities in Ephesus.

Throughout the letter Paul has encouraged good works, and like the letter of James there is the expectation of a way of life that is reflective of the faith. Some of the actions of the church will conform to the expectations of society and the household while others will in positive ways be a light among the community. Sometimes their good work is seen immediately, other times it becomes apparent gradually among the community. Timothy has been given a heavy task in correcting the elders and women in the community and restoring them to a life that is faithful both to the household and to the community of faith. Timothy is called to help these early followers of Christ balance their religious responsibilities (eusebias) with their household responsibilities (oikos).

[1] Matthew 10:25; 13: 52; 20:1.

[2] The Greek phylaros refers to gossip of “a serious and slanderous sort.” (Johnson, 2001, p. 267)

[3] The Greek epiplessein is a harsh word which is a sharp rebuke and even can connote physical striking. (Johnson, 2001, p. 260)

[4] Assuming an early date for 1 Timothy when Paul is the author. Some scholars place 1 Timothy as a later document which may post-date Matthew and Luke.

[5] The Greek angelos can mean angels or messengers. Most translations assume a group of elect angels here, but the reading of human messenger is possible.

[6] The NRSVue’s translation of this as ‘ordain’ assumes a more complete understanding of ministry than likely existed in the early church. The laying on of hands was a sign of granting authority but it does not necessarily grant an existing title with responsibilities like it does as church authority becomes more formal.

1 Timothy 4 Encouraging Timothy and Correcting False Teachings

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1 Timothy 4

¹ Now the Spirit expressly says that in later times some will renounce the faith by paying attention to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons, ² through the hypocrisy of liars whose consciences are seared with a hot iron. ³ They forbid marriage and abstain from certain foods, which God created to be received with thanksgiving by those who believe and know the truth. ⁴ For everything created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected, provided it is received with thanksgiving, ⁵ for it is sanctified by God’s word and by prayer.

⁶ If you put these instructions before the brothers and sisters, you will be a good servant of Christ Jesus, nourished on the words of the faith and of the sound teaching that you have followed. ⁷ Have nothing to do with profane and foolish tales. Train yourself in godliness, ⁸ for, while physical training is of some value, godliness is valuable in every way, holding promise for both the present life and the life to come. ⁹ The saying is sure and worthy of full acceptance. ¹⁰ For to this end we toil and suffer reproach, because we have our hope set on the living God, who is the Savior of all people, especially of those who believe.
¹¹ Command and teach these things. ¹² Let no one despise your youth, but set the believers an example in speech and conduct, in love, in faith, in purity. ¹³ Until I arrive, give attention to the public reading of scripture, to exhorting, to teaching. ¹⁴ Do not neglect the gift that is in you, which was given to you through prophecy with the laying on of hands by the council of elders. ¹⁵ Put these things into practice, devote yourself to them, so that all may see your progress. ¹⁶ Pay close attention to yourself and to your teaching; continue in these things, for in doing this you will save both yourself and your hearers.

The apostle Paul’s ministry involved him seeding and supporting churches throughout modern day Turkey, Greece, and beyond. These churches, likely meeting in the homes of individual members, received some formation during the duration of Paul’s presence with them but as Paul’s attention is spread across a larger number of cities and churches the need for instruction becomes apparent. Thankfully for later generations, Paul did a lot of this instruction and correction through letters attempting to continue to guide and shape this young but rapidly growing and evolving church. Paul now writes to Timothy as he attempts to counter the false teachings and practices which are dividing the church in Ephesus both to encourage his younger counterpart and to support his work in correcting these beliefs which are infiltrating the life of the community.

The early Christian community did expect God to speak through the Spirit in prophecy, proclamation, and in acts of healing and power. In Corinth Paul had to counsel that congregation on how to utilize these gifts of the Spirit, but the assumption throughout Paul’s letter is that the Spirit is active and communicating with this young community of faith. Now Paul’s instructions are framed within the statement of the Spirit, presumably through prophecy, that in later times some will renounce (Greek apostesontai, where we get the English word apostate) the faith and that behind these deviant teaching are deceitful spirits and demons. Modern readers may be uncomfortable that Paul is ‘demonizing’ these false teachers, but for Paul this is a matter of critical importance to the life of the church and the individuals. The actions of these teachers is causing strife within the church, leading some down paths which are contrary to the faith, and likely leading others to walk away from these communities in conflict. Paul feels that the gospel is at stake and this is a matter of life and death. The hypocrisy of liars (Greek hupokrisei pseudologon, where our word hypocrisy comes from and ‘false words’) has cauterized the consciences of these teachers. As Jouette M. Bassler can state about the Greek word behind cauterized/seared with a hot iron:

Burning with a hot iron (Gk. Kausteriazein) was done to numb or cauterize a wound, to punish, or to identify ownership (NEB, cf 2 Tim 2:26). Any of these meanings could apply here; the essential point is one of contrast between those whose consciences are good (1:5, 19) or pure (3:9; 2 Tim 1:3) and those whose consciences are rejected. (Bassler, 1996, p. 80)

The two false teachings and practices highlighted in the letter are forbidding marriage and abstaining from certain foods. The forbidding of marriage may have led to some of the instructions on widows in chapter five, but it also fundamentally undermines the social structure of the ancient world. In the ancient world there were few opportunities for women to be self-supporting (outside of prostitution or being a courtesan among the upper class). It is possible that these teachers are anticipating the advent of Christ’s kingdom in a short period of time and view the current time as unworthy of investing in, but Paul may view their actions as turning away from God’s intent for relationships in creation. The actions of these teachers may also be causing these young churches to be viewed with suspicion by their neighbors and placing a stumbling block before those who need to hear the gospel. Paul wrestled with controversies around eating throughout his ministry, both within a Jewish context attempting to maintain the distinctive eating practices of the Jewish people and imposing dietary and other expectation on early Christians but also within the Greco-Roman world where meat was often associated with communal sacrifices to other gods. Paul explicitly wraps both marriage and eating of food under the things God created for humanity to be received with thanksgiving (Greek euchapistias, the word where our English eucharist comes from). These eucharistic gifts are made holy/sanctified (Greek hagiazetai) by God’s word and prayer. This language reminds me of Luther’s discussion of the sacraments where he connects the receiving of the physical element (water, bread, wine) with the Word and command of God.

Paul expects Timothy to place the contents of the letters before the Ephesian congregations, and in doing so Timothy is a good servant (literally deacon) of Christ Jesus. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the title of deacon and the act of serving are used interchangeably in the early church and the roles are not rigidly defined. Timothy can be a representative of Paul charged with overseeing the congregations in Ephesus, and yet always remains a servant. Timothy has received faithful teaching in contrast to the false words of the troublesome teachers operating in Ephesus. Yet, even Timothy is charged to stay away from profane teaching and ‘foolish tales’ (literally old women myths). I can understand the NRSVue’s discomfort, feeling that ‘old wives tales’ is a translation pejorative to women, but through most of history there have been ‘old wives’ tales’ that were a place where stories, beliefs, and practices, some which may have contradicted the teaching of the church and other authorities, were handed down. Critical to 1 Timothy is the Greek eusebias which means piety, religion, or as the NRSVue renders it godliness. I prefer religion here although it is also an imperfect translation since many think of this either in terms of religious belief or practice within a church. In modern American thought godliness is next to cleanliness and this term’s connection with religious practice has been lost. Piety is an important idea in the Greco-Roman world, but it’s reception in English is often limited to actions that happen in the context of worship and prayer rather than the more wholistic idea the eusebias points to. Eusebias for Paul is something that’s value far exceeds physical training, which Paul uses in several metaphors in his letters, but this term for Paul seems to encompass faith and practice, including but not limited to worship and prayer. Just as the athlete endures physical toil and suffering, so the person training in religion/godliness will endure toil and suffering from the surrounding world as it resists these practices and beliefs as well as the demonic/false teachings of those causing divisions among the community of faith. As James D. G. Dunn articulates:

The writer makes clear that such growth and development depend on training and the discipline involved (vv. 7-8); they involve hard work and sweat-inducing exertion (v. 15). Here again a choice once made has to be repeatedly reaffirmed and lived out. (NIB XI: 816)

The saying is sure (the Greek is literally faith(ful) the word pistis ho logos) and worthy of all acceptance appears for the second time highlighting the statement of faith that the faithful suffer and toil over. Previously in 1 Timothy 1: 15 the faithful saying was that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners. Now, their hope is in the living God who is the Savior of all people. It is a common biblical belief that the God of the bible (as well as of Israel and the people of God) is a living and active God who is actively engaged in the world. Savior, as mentioned in the first chapter, is a common Old Testament title for God and was likely utilized in the communities in Ephesus. That God is the Savior of all people may point to the idea of a universal salvation or it may be intended to expand the horizon of God’s salvation beyond Israel. The idea of God saving all being indicative of a universalistic hope is congruent with the follow on phrase which declares especially those who believe. Some readers view this phrase as correcting the previous one, but I read this as highlighting those who believe within the larger set of those who God intends to save. Although the method of argumentation is different, since the question is likely different in Ephesus, it has a similar logic to Paul’s rationale for God utilizing the faithlessness of Israel to include the Gentiles and then the grafting of the Gentiles onto the holy tree to point to God regrafting on the branches of Israel that have fallen off so that along with the Gentiles all Israel will be saved (Romans 11).

The instructions to Timothy starting in verse eleven encourage him to not only command and teach but set an example in speech and conduct. Although authenticity is a word of our time, the expectation of congruity between one’s proclamation and one’s actions was very important in rhetorical expectations of the Greco-Roman world. As Luke Timothy Johnson states:

We are reminded of how seriously ancient philosophers regarded the responsibility of teachers to live in accord with what they professed…Since philosophy in the Hellenistic period was considered to be essentially a matter of integrity of life, and since virtue was thought to be learned first and best by the imitation of living models, the teacher has no greater duty than to live in a manner consonant with the principles he enunciated. (Johnson, 2001, p. 255)

The speech, conduct, love, faith and purity which Timothy exhibits will be as crucial in his work to bring healing and wholeness to the community as the commands and teaching he does. Timothy may be young among the elders of the Ephesian church, but his example should demonstrate his worth along with the calling he has received through prophecy[1] and laying on of hands. Paul and the council of elders (presbyteriou where the term Presbyter comes from and the Presbyterian church gets its name). It is not clear whether the prophecy came at the moment of the laying on of hands by the council of elders or before, and whether this council of elders was in Jerusalem, in Ephesus, or in some other place in the Pauline mission area, but Timothy has been set aside for his ministry representing Paul, but more essentially representing Christ. Timothy is called to live a public life which bears witness to the teaching entrusted to him in word and in action which forms a powerful example for his hearers.

The formation of the overseers and deacons in the previous chapters and the expectations of Timothy in our current chapter point to the public life of those set aside for roles of leadership in the church. The life of a leader in the church expects that their faith and practice will be an example of the faith and practices they are attempting to cultivate in their communities. Yet, we live in a time where postmodernity and other forces have made talking about standards both for the church and its leaders difficult. Luke Timothy Johnson continues his statement from earlier stating:

The widespread unwillingness in contemporary Western culture to provide direct and unambiguous moral instruction or to assume responsibility for acting in a manner that can be exemplary for others would have been unintelligible in antiquity. (Johnson, 2001, p. 255)

The damage done both to the community’s reputation and the trust within the community when leaders and members do not act in a way that reflects the faith they proclaim is profound. The church has always had divisions, but only a leader who embodies the faith for the community can begin to rebuild trust and authentically proclaim the gospel. Timothy, and faith leaders who follow him into broken communities, brings light into the darkness of division, clarity into the confusion and clashes over practices and beliefs, and healing so that the gospel can be heard both in the church and in the surrounding world. Failure to attend to a life that embodies the gospel places unnecessary stumbling blocks before the entirety of the world that the living God of the gospel desires to save.

[1] Paul also mentioned the prophecy over Timothy in 1:18.

1 Timothy 1 Paul Encourages Timothy in Ephesus

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The Library of Celsus in Ephesus Photo By Benh LIEU SONG – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15578063

1 Timothy 1: 1-2

¹ Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the command of God our Savior and of Christ Jesus our hope,
² To Timothy, my true child in the faith:
Grace, mercy, and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord.

Letters in the ancient world begin with the identification of the sender and the recipient. Paul begins by making a strong claim to authority, “an apostle of Christ Jesus by the command of God our Savior and Christ Jesus our hope.” When Paul begins with the title of apostle (e.g. 1 Corinthians, Galatians) he is often writing to communities dealing with crisis and where his authority is needed. In letters like Romans or Philippians where he is not addressing significant behavioral issues or where he wants to be more diplomatic he utilizes the title of servant/slave (doulos) of the Lord. Paul also immediately leans into the title of God as our Savior. God as Savior is a common theme in the Old Testament/Hebrew Scriptures[1] and it is worth remembering at the time these letters are written the stories of the gospels are likely circulating but they have not been collected and distributed throughout these young communities of faith. The Scriptures for these early Christian are the Hebrew Scriptures.

Timothy is described as Paul’s ‘true child,’ an adjective that normally defines a child born in wedlock. A legitimate child as opposed to an illegitimate one (NIB XI: 790). Yet, when the letter continues ‘in the faith’ most readers would probably understand Timothy as Paul’s true and authentic delegate, that Timothy and Paul share the same faith and that Timothy is being empowered to speak with Paul’s authority. Paul’s also utilizes the term for ‘true’ (gnesios) in Philippians 2:20 to speak of Timothy’s true concern for the welfare of the Philippians. Timothy is Paul’s trusted representative before the Ephesians, one who is like a son to him.

Paul concludes the greeting with a blessing. Grace (charis) is a distinctive Pauline term, and the vast majority of this term’s occurrences happen in Paul’s letters. Here the term is combined with two additional terms: peace (eirene) and mercy (eleos). Peace brings forward the Hebrew idea of shalom and mercy (eleos) is the normal term used to translate in both Greek and English the Hebrew term hesed. These three rich terms are brought together to bless Timothy and his community. God is referred to here as Father, a common way of referring to God in both the teaching of Jesus and occurs frequently in Pauline benedictions, and Christ Jesus our Lord is placed in parallel usage of God the Father.

1 Timothy 1: 3-11

³ I urge you, as I did when I was on my way to Macedonia, to remain in Ephesus so that you may instruct certain people not to teach different teachings ⁴ and not to occupy themselves with myths and endless genealogies that promote speculations rather than the divine training that is known by faith. ⁵ But the aim of such instruction is love that comes from a pure heart, a good conscience, and sincere faith. ⁶ Some people have deviated from these and turned to meaningless talk, ⁷ desiring to be teachers of the law without understanding either what they are saying or the things about which they make assertions.
⁸ Now we know that the law is good, if one uses it legitimately; ⁹ this means understanding that the law is laid down not for the righteous but for the lawless and disobedient, for the godless and sinful, for the unholy and profane, for those who kill their father or mother, for murderers, ¹⁰ the sexually immoral, men who engage in illicit sex, slave traders, liars, perjurers, and whatever else is contrary to the sound teaching ¹¹ that conforms to the glorious gospel of the blessed God, with which I was entrusted.

In many of Paul’s letters there would be a thanksgiving for the community, but here the letter moves immediately into instructions. Paul has done this in Galatians, so this is not unheard of, and like Galatians Paul is concerned about the continuation of the community. Verse three gives us the setting where Timothy receives the letter, Ephesus where he is instructed to remain, and Paul at some earlier time departed for Macedonia. In Acts Paul sent Timothy on to Macedonia while he stayed in Ephesus (Acts 19:22) and later proceeds to Macedonia. Later he will gather with the Ephesian elders in Miletus (Acts 20:17). This letter is likely between Paul’s departure from Ephesus and his later meeting with the elders.[2]

Among the early Christians in Ephesus there are different teachings emerging. We have glimpses into the challenges that the early churches face through letters like this 1 Timothy, the book of Acts and the book of Revelation. The Book of Acts portrays Ephesus as a city where the early Christ followers meet resistance both from within the synagogue and from the followers of the Greek gods, particularly the followers of Artemis. Revelation’s letter to the Ephesians points to a community that has learned to test those claiming to be apostles and continuing to deal with groups, like the Nicolaitans, who are viewed as harmful by the author of Revelation. Yet, in Revelation these conflicts have sapped the energy of the churches in this large city. We may not be able to identify specifically the ‘myths and genealogies’ that some are teaching but to Paul they are leading people away from the central witness of Christ. The ‘myths and genealogies’ may be focusing on the wrong things in scripture, since Paul indicates that some are desiring to be teachers of the law, but they may also be a distortion coming from outside of the scriptures. Another possibility is that these teachers who are leading people into “meaningless talk” have separated teaching from action. They may be so focused on some knowledge they are attempting to wrestle from the scriptures or from the surrounding culture that they have stopped the distinctive practices that shaped the early Christians.

Paul then focuses on the law and how it is utilized. Paul’s declaration that the law is good is similar to statements he has made in Romans[3] but also indicates that the law is not for the righteous. Perhaps Paul intends something similar to the fruits of the Spirit mentioned in Galatians where “There is no law against such things.” (Galatians 5: 32) Paul likely composes the vice list in verses nine and ten while reflecting on the ten commandments. Godless and sinful refer to someone behaving blasphemously towards God while unholy and profane likely reference the commandment on keeping the Sabbath holy and profaning the name of God. Killing of father and mother and murderers bring together the commandment to honor father and mother and murder. The commandment on adultery also references both the ‘sexually immoral’ and ‘men who engage in illicit sex.’ The Greek term pornos (NRSVue sexually immoral) is the prefix for the English word pornography. As Luke Timothy Johnson notes, “In the LXX and the NT, the term is used for the sexually immoral without specific reference to homosexuality.” (Johnson, 2001, p. 170) The Greek arsenkoitos (NRSVue men who engage in illicit sex) is literally one who has sex with a man. As James D.G. Dunn notes,

Today the most controversial of these is the putting of homosexual practice (v. 10; the term almost certainly comes from Lev 18:22; 20:13) under the prohibition of adultery; the teaching is consistent with Paul’s views expressed earlier in Rom 1:26-27; 1 Cor 6: 9-10 (NIB XI:791)

This is the first of many times where 1 Timothy will come into conflict with elements of our culture, just as it was likely in conflict with elements of Paul’s time. Many Greek authors write about relationships between a man and an adolescent youth (pederasty) but there is some debate about how often these relationships were sexual. Paul viewed the existence of same-sex relationships as one of the many examples of how far humanity and creation had been corrupted by sin.

On a personal note, the larger church I am a part of has struggled with the question of homosexuality within the larger picture of sexuality since before I entered seminary in 2000. It has been a divisive issue within the larger church and within congregations I have served. I also have a non-gender binary child and my perspective on this issue has shifted throughout my life. When I entered seminary, I would have agreed that LGBTQ+ people have a place within the congregation but I would have been opposed to them having leadership roles whether as pastors, deacons or in positions of authority. Through experiences, wrestling with scripture, and faithful conversations I am now open to LGBTQ+ people who are trying to live faithfully serving in the leadership of the church but I also understand why others struggle to accept them into leadership, just as some do not accept women in leadership (see chapter 2).

Returning to the vice list: stealing is not simply stealing but “slave dealing.” I will talk about slavery more in chapter 6, but although slavery was an accepted part of the Roman empire “slave traders” have normally been viewed with disdain. Liars and perjures point to the commandment on bearing false witness. Paul concludes with ‘whatever is contrary to the sound teaching’ which returns us to the questions about different teaching which began this section. Paul is asking his hearers to measure the teaching they are receiving against the gospel he shared with them for its conformity to Christ and scripture in both teaching and living.

1 Timothy 1: 12-17

¹² I am grateful to Christ Jesus our Lord, who has strengthened me, because he considered me faithful and appointed me to his service, ¹³ even though I was formerly a blasphemer, a persecutor, and a man of violence. But I received mercy because I had acted ignorantly in unbelief, ¹⁴ and the grace of our Lord overflowed for me with the faith and love that are in Christ Jesus. ¹⁵ The saying is sure and worthy of full acceptance: that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners—of whom I am the foremost. ¹⁶ But for that very reason I received mercy, so that in me, as the foremost, Jesus Christ might display the utmost patience as an example to those who would come to believe in him for eternal life. ¹⁷ To the King of the ages, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.

For Paul his call to serve Jesus was transformational. He went from someone who, out of ignorance, was acting against God’s will to one whose life is completely committed to the gospel. One of the rhetorical effects of this narration of Paul’s transformation from a faithless one (apistis-without faith, NRSVue ‘unbelief’) to one overflowing with faith and love, from a man of violence to a man of peace, from a blasphemer to a servant of God is to provide hope that those lost to these different teachings can be reclaimed to God and Christ.

Paul talks about faith (Greek pisitis) more proportionally in 1 Timothy than in any other letter except Galatians and Romans.[4] Sometimes English translations obscure the occurrences of ‘faith’ as occurs in verse fifteen. Normally English translations render this verse similar to the NRSVue, “the saying is sure and worthy of full acceptance.” A literal translation of the Greek would be, “the word of faith (or faithful word) and worthy of all acceptance.” What word is faith worthy of all acceptance? That Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners. Paul’s transformation becomes the model of what Christ is doing with those who were once estranged from God. Jesus is at work in Paul showing the patience of God that is for all who have faith in God.

The Greek word aionios (eon) occurs four times in the final two verses of this section. It occurs at the end of sixteen paired with life (zoe)-into life of the eon/age. Most translations render this ‘eternal life’ and while Paul, I believe, does believe that the age God is creating is eternal he is not thinking of an existence in heaven. For Paul, and the other New Testament authors, God’s kingdom and age is coming to earth. The next occurrence of eon is in the title for God, the king of the eon/age. Life in the eon/age is linked to the king of the eon/age who rules the eon of eons/age to age. God is also described as immortal/incorruptible, invisible and the only God. God being the one God goes back to the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4), the central confession of faith of the Jewish people. God is also frequently referred to as unseen in both the Old and New Testament and while God being unending or incorruptible is assumed but rarely spoken throughout the scriptures. It is possible that Paul is using a title for God that is frequently utilized by the communities in Ephesus.

1 Timothy 1: 18-20

¹⁸ This charge I commit to you, Timothy, my child, in accordance with the prophecies made earlier about you, so that by following them you may fight the good fight, ¹⁹ having faith and a good conscience. By rejecting conscience, certain persons have suffered shipwreck in the faith; ²⁰ among them are Hymenaeus and Alexander, whom I have turned over to Satan, so that they may be taught not to blaspheme.

The chapter closes with a personal note to Timothy intended to be overheard by the community. Paul reaffirms the closeness with Timothy using the familial language of father to child but also links Timothy’s calling to prophecies made in the church. Timothy is the chosen one, chosen both by Paul and by God. The language shifts to military language. “Fight the good fight” is literally (military) service in this good campaign/battle. Dealing with church conflict is challenging. In my own story I was an officer in the U.S. Army prior to seminary and my job as a leader in the Army may have been harder physically, but leading a congregation through conflict was more emotionally draining.

Hymenaeus and Alexander were people Paul excluded from the community of the faithful. The early communities may not have a word like excommunication for this disfellowshipping of a former member of the faith but even at this early stage there is a need for boundaries. Hymenaeus will be mentioned in 2 Timothy 2:17 along with Philetus as spreading a teaching that the resurrection has already occurred. Alexander the Coppersmith is listed in 2 Timothy 4: 14 as one who did Paul great harm[5] and both are people for Timothy to avoid. In Greek these individuals are handed over by Paul to ‘the satan.’ In Matthew’s gospel which also has this type of disfellowshipping (Matthew 18:17) the desire is that the person changes and they are returned to fellowship. The use of the definite article (the) with the title satan may refer to this role of the accuser in the Old Testament, particularly Job. Here ‘the satan’ is ultimately God’s agent. Martin Luther would sometimes refer to the devil as ‘God’s devil’ because even though the devil may be opposed to God’s designs, even his opposition to God was brought into God’s design.

One of the hardest things for a community to do is to remove a member, but it can also be one of the most important things for the life of a community. Whether it is false teaching, bullying, or other unsafe behavior the failure to address the person who has been corrected and refuses to change will undermine the community. Timothy, in our letter, likely dealt with a very challenging moment in the life of the community and may need the support of Paul, his spiritual father. He may need to be reminded of his calling that God has placed on him as he attempts to bring this community back to faithfulness and peace.

[1] E.g. Deuteronomy 32:15; Psalm 27: 1, 9; Isaiah 45:15, 21; This is also the background for this usage in Mary’s Song commonly called the Magnificat in Luke 1:47.

[2] In this reflection my assumption is that Paul wrote this letter. Many scholars believe 1 Timothy is written by a later author after Paul’s death and therefore the letter comes from a later time. I am also assuming that Acts narration of Paul’s life is generally accurate but incomplete, not capturing every detail of Paul’s ministry.

[3] Romans 7: 7, 14, 21; in Galatians Paul’s language about the law is less friendly but in Galatians 3: 21 the use of the law is in a limited manner like he utilizes here.

[4] 1 Timothy has eighteen uses of pistis in six chapters, Galatians has twenty-two in six chapters and Romans thirty-seven in sixteen chapters. (Johnson, 2001, p. 158)

[5] This may be the same Alexander mentioned in Acts 19:33.

Brief Introduction to 1 Timothy

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Statue of Saint Timothy at St. Timothy ‘s Church, The Villages, Florida Photo by Whoisjohngalt – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=85244772

1 Timothy is the first of a collection of letters called the Pastoral letters, and although these three letters are often treated together, each letter has its own character and reason for being written. 1 Timothy is addressed to Timothy, but it is likely intended to be read to the community that Timothy is working with rather than being a more personal letter like 2 Timothy. I am working through this reflection from the perspective that 1 Timothy is an authentic letter from Paul (see discussion in the Introduction to the Pastoral Letters) writing to Timothy at Ephesus.

Ephesus, on the western edge of modern-day Turkey, as Luke Timothy Johnson describes it,

Ephesus was “the first and greatest metropolis of Asia,” …Its population during the early empire was probably between 100,000 and 150,000, making it rank only below Rome and Alexandria in size as an urban center. (Johnson, 2001, p. 142)

Being one of the largest cities in the Roman empire, it is a place where there are already Christian disciples present before Paul’s arrival according to the book of Acts (Acts 19: 1-7). Yet, these Christian disciples are missing a critical component of the understanding of baptism. One of the reasons some readers feel this letter is not from Paul but from a later writer is that it does not precisely line up with the narration of the book of Acts where Paul sends Timothy to Macedonia, while he stays in Ephesus (Acts 19:22), but it is plausible that after Paul goes to Macedonia that he sends Timothy as his representative to address issues continuing to emerge among the communities of faithful in Ephesus.

One of the things that is clear from the letter is that the community of the faithful in Ephesus that Timothy is attempting to guide and correct is dealing with conflicts over beliefs and behaviors. There are connections between this letter and 1 Corinthians, but also between content in Ephesians. As we approach this letter to Timothy and the churches in Ephesus, it is worth remembering that Paul is writing to a community in trouble. Paul’s intention here is to correct issues that are emerging and threatening the future of these communities of faith and to strengthen Timothy’s presence among them. In Thomas Long’s memorable image, “In the Pastoral Epistles, though we see the church on the mechanic’s lift in the garage, and we are given guidance form performing an ecclesial engine overhaul.” (Long, 2016, p. 1) Yet, the work of performing an “ecclesial engine overhaul” is messy work.

In 1 Timothy there will be solutions that Paul commands that may be unpopular to many people today. Paul leans into traditional gender roles, traditional roles in societal hierarchy, and we see within these churches one of the early mentions of deacons and bishops. Paul is not a systematic theologian in this letter presenting a solution for all times and places, he is rolling up his sleeves to get his hands dirty with the overhaul needed in this community at this time. Yet, it is always dangerous to attempt to read modern values onto ancient people. There are several difficult passages to work through in this short letter, but I believe an honest conversation with these texts is fruitful even if it can be difficult.

Among many modern readers 1 Timothy has received skeptical and critical readings, but what I will be attempting is a charitable and generous reading. Ellen Davis, a writer I’ve learned a great deal from, describes a charitable reading in this way:

The difficult text is worthy of charity from its interpreters. Interpretive charity does not mean pity but rather something more like generosity and patience toward the text…Charitable reading requires considerable effort; it is easier to dispense with the difficult text. Those who regard a text as religiously authoritative are willing to sustain that effort, because they perceive it in some sense as a gift from God. (Davis, 2003, p. 178)

One of the perspectives I adopted when I was working through Deuteronomy was to wonder what type of world or community it was attempting to imagine. I look forward to the process of trying to imagine the community of faith that Paul and Timothy desire at the completion of this ecclesial engine overhaul.

James 4 Addressing the Cause of the Conflicts in the Body

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Job (oil on canvas) by Bonnat, Leon Joseph Florentin (1833-1922)

James 4:1-10

¹ Those conflicts and disputes among you, where do they come from? Do they not come from your cravings that are at war within you? ² You want something and do not have it, so you commit murder. And you covet something and cannot obtain it, so you engage in disputes and conflicts. You do not have because you do not ask. ³ You ask and do not receive because you ask wrongly, in order to spend what you get on your pleasures. ⁴ Adulterers! Do you not know that friendship with the world is enmity with God? Therefore whoever wishes to be a friend of the world becomes an enemy of God. ⁵ Or do you suppose that the scripture speaks to no purpose? Does the spirit that God caused to dwell in us desire envy? ⁶ But God gives all the more grace; therefore it says,
“God opposes the proud
but gives grace to the humble.”
⁷ Submit yourselves therefore to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. ⁸ Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. Cleanse your hands, you sinners, and purify your hearts, you double-minded. ⁹ Lament and mourn and weep. Let your laughter be turned into mourning and your joy into dejection. ¹⁰ Humble yourselves before the Lord, and he will exalt you.

James begins this portion of his letter with a set of militaristic terms which are to be at odds with the wisdom which comes from above which is pure, peaceable, gentle, willing to yield, full of mercy and good fruits, and without a trace of partiality or hypocrisy (3:17). Yet, it is precisely these militaristic verbs of conflicts (polemos), disputes (mache), waging war (stateuo), commit murder (phoneuo), and conflict (polemeo) which are tearing the body apart. These warlike verbs are driven by cravings (hedone), want (epithymeo), and coveting (zealoo). Earlier James had linked cravings to temptation and temptation to sin and sin to death (1:14-15) and now these cravings, wants, and desires are dealing death in the body of the community. James uses this stark language to show how those he is addressing have adopted the values of the world rather than submitting to the wisdom of God.

James’s language is full of conflict-related terms, and he criticizes those who engage in disputes and conflicts, but I do not believe that James is provoking a conflict but instead identifying the conflicts that are already present in the body. It is possible that James is speaking of the war within you in a manner similar to Paul’s description of the internal conflict of Romans 7, but I find it more likely that James’s target is a conflict emerging externally within these early Christian communities. It is possible that the polemic (from the Greek polemos translated by the NRSVue here as conflict) is merely verbal and that the murder mentioned is merely metaphorical. Yet, this time before the Jewish war[1] was a time of factions and disputes within the Jewish community in Judea and Galilee and there may have been zealots (from the Greek zealoo translated by the NRSVue as coveting) who were engaged in violence to attempt to establish their vision of justice. There is a continual struggle in the Hebrew scriptures against those who seek their own pleasure/cravings (the Greek hedone where we get our term hedonic) and advantage at the expense of others in the community. Whether verbal or physical there is something rearing its head in the conflict of the community that represents the values of the world and not of God. Those called followers of Christ may be attempting to seize their desires through disputes and conflicts, and even when they do ask they ask merely for the hedonic things that the world values rather than entrusting their desires to God.

James leans into the prophetic language of adultery to speak of the unfaithfulness of these followers of Christ to the faith of Christ. As Scot McKnight illustrates:

Hosea was the first to speak of the covenant relationship of Israel with YHWH in terms of marital intimacy and marital infidelity (Hos 1-3, 9:1). His language was then picked up like variations on a theme, by Isaiah (54: 1-6, 57:3), Jeremiah (2:2; 3: 6-14, 20) and Ezekiel (16: 23-26-38; 23:45). Both Jesus (Matt 12:39; 16:4; Mark 8:38) and the early Christians (1 Cor 6:15; 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:22-32; Rev 19:7; 21:9) carried on this tradition by using marital imagery for God’s people and referring to disobedience as relational, covenantal infidelity. (McKnight, 2011, p. 332)

James is not alone in placing the world (and its values) in conflict with God and God’s covenant values. 1 John uses very similar language:

Do not love the world or the things in the world. The love of the Father is not in those who love the world, for all that is in the world—the desire of the flesh, the desire of the eyes, the pride in riches—comes not from the Father but from the world. And the world and its desire are passing away, but those who do the will of God abide forever. 1 John 2: 15-17

Jesus would tell his followers that one cannot serve two masters, and although in Matthew’s gospel Jesus is placing God and wealth (mammon) in conflict (Matthew 6:24) here friendship with the word (and its values) is enmity with God. Those who James addresses are mistaking earthly things for heavenly things, worldly wisdom for divine wisdom.

Verse five and six have given interpreters a lot of struggles throughout history. Many readers have been confused because James appears to cite an unknown scripture with unclear Greek grammar. (Moore-Keish, 2019, p. 145) One possible solution which I find helpful is proposed by Scot McKnight that the scripture quoted is Proverbs 3:34 which actually is quoted in verse six, and the remainder of verse five is setting the framework for James quoting Proverbs. Another option McKnight mentions is the general theme of God’s jealous love throughout the scriptures. (McKnight, 2011, p. 336) This quote contrasting the proud (scorners in NRSVue’s translation of Proverbs 3:34)[2] and the humble who God grants grace to forms a pivot between James’s identification of the conflicts in the community and the distorted worldview that causes the conflicts and the actions of those who would follow the way of Christ.

Ten imperatives occurring in a staccato manner provide the call to action in resisting the friendship of the world. James calls these Jesus followers to submit, resist, draw near, cleanse, purify, lament, mourn, weep, allow laughter to be turned to mourning, and humble themselves. Both James and 1 Peter use Proverbs 3:34 and then turn to imperatives to shape the proper actions of the community in similar manners:

In the same way, you who are younger must be subject to the elders. And all of you must clothe yourselves with humility in your dealings with one another, for
“God opposes the proud
but gives grace to the humble.”
Humble yourselves, therefore, under the mighty hand of God, so that he may exalt you in due time. Cast all your anxiety on him, because he cares for you. Discipline yourselves; keep alert. Like a roaring lion your adversary the devil prowls around, looking for someone to devour. Resist him, steadfast in your faith, for you know that your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering. 1 Peter 5: 5-9

Submission to God and God’s will is a common theme in the Hebrew scriptures. The call to resist (anthistemi) has the military connotation to stand one’s ground, hence Ephesians uses this term:

Therefore take up the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to withstand on the evil day and, having prevailed against everything, to stand firm (anthistemi). Ephesians 6:13

In Genesis, in the story of Cain and Able, Cain is instructed to resist sin:

The Lord said to Cain, “Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen? If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is lurking at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it.” Genesis 4: 6-7

Here James is telling these followers of Christ if they stand firm (resist) the devil that it will cause him to flee. Throughout the prophets there is a call to return to God, for example:

Therefore say to them: Thus says the Lord of hosts: Return to me, says the Lord of hosts, and I will return to you, says the Lord of hosts. Zech 1:3 (see also Malachi 3:7)

James continues to draw together themes from throughout scriptures in an echo of Psalm 24:

Who shall ascend the hill of the Lord? And who shall stand in his holy place? Those who have clean hands and pure hearts, who do not lift up their souls to what is false and do not swear deceitfully. Psalm 24: 3-4

The idea of being double-minded, trying to be friends with God and the world, have been present throughout this section but here James utilizes the term first used in 1:7. James would likely agree with Ecclesiastes that there is a time for everything, but the conflict at work in the community demonstrates to James that it is a time for mourning. As the prophet Joel could state to his community:

Yet even now, says the Lord, return to me with all your heart, with fasting, with weeping, and with mourning; rend your hearts and not your clothing. Return to the Lord your God,for he is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, abounding in steadfast love, and relenting from punishment. Joel 2: 12-13

I do not believe that James is intending to form a dour community but reading the signs of the times he feels that those who are laughing now will mourn when God’s kingdom comes and those who are mourning now will laugh (Luke 6:25). The people of God are to embrace humility (tapeinosis) in a way very different than the surrounding world. As Joel Green states, “Outside biblical useage, the terminology for one who is humble (tapeinos)or humility (tapeinosis) is generally negative.” (Green, 2025, p. 122) The New Testament thinks of this term very differently as Mary’s song illustrates when it declares that God has “looked with favor on the lowly state [tapeinosis] of his servant,” and ”lifts up the lowly [tapeinos]” (Luke 1: 48, 52)

Almost two millenia after James wrote his letter to these twelve tribes in the Diaspora, we still struggle to separate the ways of the world from the ways of God. Walter Brueggemann describes our plight in this way,

We who are not the richest nation are today’s main coveters….the central problem of our lives is that we are torn apart by the conflict between our attraction to the good news of God’s abundance and the power of our belief in scarcity—a belief that makes us greedy, mean and unneighborly. We spend our lives trying to sort out this ambiguity. (Moore-Keish, 2019, p. 145) quoting Brueggemann, “The Liturgy of Abundance and the Myth of Scarcity”

In a culture that promotes cravings (hedone), want (epithymeo), and coveting (zealoo) we also are called to submit, resist, draw near, cleanse, purify, lament, mourn, weep, allow laughter to be turned to mourning, and humble ourselves. Our faith tells us that God will provide what we need and yet the world tells us we must seize and secure our own future. James may be frustrated with his initial hearers yet I doubt his language would change much if he were able to address the followers of Christ scattered throughout the world today and divided by our own conflicts, disputes, and even wars.

James 4: 11-12

¹¹ Do not speak evil against one another, brothers and sisters. Whoever speaks evil against another or judges another speaks evil against the law and judges the law, but if you judge the law, you are not a doer of the law but a judge. ¹² There is one lawgiver and judge who is able to save and to destroy. So who, then, are you to judge your neighbor?

James has already indicated at the beginning of chapter three that not many should be teachers because of the danger of the misuse of the tongue and the danger it can cause in the community. Now James instructs the not to speak against (Greek katalaleo, NRSVue speak evil) or judge (Greek krivo) their neighbor. James again echoes Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 7:1-5) when he commands his followers not to judge. The one lawgiver who can save and destroy is God (see Matthew 10:28; Deuteronomy 32:39) and followers of the way of Jesus are not to put themselves in God’s place where they are the judges of the law. The followers of Christ are to learn to be doers of the law and worry about the log in their own eye before they attempt to remove the mote from their neighbor’s eye. (Matthew 7:5).

Image from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140130190453.htm

James 4: 13-17

¹³ Come now, you who say, “Today or tomorrow we will go to such and such a town and spend a year there, doing business and making money.” ¹⁴ Yet you do not even know what tomorrow will bring. What is your life? For you are a mist that appears for a little while and then vanishes. ¹⁵ Instead you ought to say, “If the Lord wishes, we will live and do this or that.” ¹⁶ As it is, you boast in your arrogance; all such boasting is evil. ¹⁷ Anyone, then, who knows the right thing to do and fails to do it commits sin.

In humbling oneself and submitting to God one learns the wisdom that one’s life is completely in God’s hands. The foolish person believes they are the master of their own destiny and like the rich young fool in Luke 12: 15-20 makes grandiose plans for a future that never arrives. James taps into the one of the fundamental insights of Ecclesiastes and Proverbs about the evanescent nature of life. Humanity is mist which appears for a little while and vanishes. This immediately calls to mind one of the favorite words of the writer of Ecclesiastes, the Hebrew word hebel (or hevel)[3]. This Hebrew word is where Abel’s name comes from in Genesis 4 and although most English translations render it as vanity it literally means vapor, smoke, mist. Humans for James and Ecclesiastes are hebel/hevel. Or as Proverbs can state, “Do not boast about tomorrow, for you do not know what a day may bring.” (Proverbs 27:1) and “The human mind may devise many plans, but it is the purpose of the Lord that will be established.” (Proverbs 19:21)

Language is important to James because it demonstrates that one understands one’s place within God’s world. Instead of claiming that one is the master of one’s future one submits one’s life to the will of God. To boast of one’s own self-security and future is the way of the world and in opposition to God.

Language is important to James, but it is not sufficient. Knowledge is also important but insufficient. Just as faith without works is dead for James, one who knows the right thing and does not act in accordance with that knowledge commits sin. James is attempting to form communities scattered throughout the world who can resist the ways of the world and carrying a living faith which can follow the way of Jesus faithfully as they await with patience the coming of the kingdom of God.

[1] Assuming the letter is from James the Just who dies in 62 CE or someone roughly contemporary to him.

[2] Often scripture quoted in the New Testament may be subtly different than in the Old Testament/Hebrew Scriptures and this normally is because the New Testament will quote the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures) while the NRSVue and most other English translations go back to the Hebrew text. Hebrew is a very different language than Greek or English and there is often shades of meaning that are unable to be fully captured in any translation.

[3] In Hebrew the letter ‘Bet’ can be either a ‘b’ or ‘v’ sound.

Sign of the Rose

Searchings: Sacred and Secular