and the lifting up of my hands as an evening sacrifice.
3Set a guard over my mouth, O LORD;
keep watch over the door of my lips.
4Do not turn my heart to any evil,
to busy myself with wicked deeds
in company with those who work iniquity;
do not let me eat of their delicacies.
5Let the righteous strike me;
let the faithful correct me.
Never let the oil of the wicked anoint my head,
for my prayer is continually against their wicked deeds.
6When they are given over to those who shall condemn them,
then they shall learn that my words were pleasant.
7Like a rock that one breaks apart and shatters on the land,
so shall their bones be strewn at the mouth of Sheol.
8But my eyes are turned toward you, O GOD, my Lord;
in you I seek refuge; do not leave me defenseless.
9Keep me from the trap that they have laid for me
and from the snares of evildoers.
10Let the wicked fall into their own nets,
while I alone escape.
The rich poetic imagery of the prayers of the worshipper ascending to God like the fragrant smoke of burning incense has always been a memorable aspect of this psalm. In my own practice this psalm is frequently used in evening prayer within the setting of Marty Haugen’s Holden Evening Prayer where verse two of the psalm becomes the refrain for the psalmody. Yet within the psalm there is a contrast between this slow imagery of prayers ascending like incense at the evening sacrifice and the urgent call of the psalmist for God to hear and come quickly. There are numerous verbal links with Psalm 140[1] but they are used to a different end. Psalm 140 cries out for God to deliver the psalmist from the poisonous words of violent men, but Psalm 141 calls on God to prevent the petitioner from their own heart and mouth being used for wickedness.
The psalm is linked poetically to the actions of worship: burning incense and offering a sacrifice. These words may originate during worship, or the author may view these words as a sacrifice and pleasant odor they can present before God. I appreciate the multisensory image which involves both scent and a visual image combined with the audible speaking of these words before God. If the prayer is offered at the evening sacrifice the petitioner may be hoping to partake in the holy portion of the evening sacrifice rather than the delicacies of those who work iniquity.
The psalmist called for God’s immediate action and that action is turned towards delivering them from the words and practices of the wicked. The language of the psalm is echoed in the warnings about appropriate companions scattered throughout Proverbs and many readers of this psalm believe the author has become associated with companions whose words and actions are evil. They ask God to guard their mouth and watch the door of their lips to prevent their tongue from becoming like the tongues sharp and snakes and lips with the venom of vipers in the previous psalm. Similarly, they ask God to keep their heart from evil and wicked deeds in the company of those who work iniquity. It is plausible that those the author speaks of are royalty and he may be echoing Proverbs 23:2, “Do not desire an official’s delicacies, for they are deceptive food.”
Any translation of verses five to seven of the psalm have had to smooth out the Hebrew text.[2] The NRSVue does a good job of creating a stanza that makes sense and I will follow their translation in continuing to discuss the psalm. The psalmist asks for the righteous to correct them, even striking them to discipline them. The language of anointing may indicate that the ones the psalmist speaks about are royalty and their anointing of the psalmist would be recognizing him as included in their group. Perhaps the psalmist is a prophet who has been speaking words that the princes and nobles did not want to hear, but they have attempted to entice him to join with them. Ultimately the psalmist agrees with the belief that God will not allow the wicked to prosper forever and eventually their bones will be scattered like a rock that shatters when it is cast against the ground.
They know that they are in danger of being ensnared by these wicked ones. Whether they have willingly been seduced into this position or these evil ones are attempting to trap them in words or actions, they understand that their deliverance will come from God. God can guard their mouth from words that can be used against them, turn their heart away from the acts which are contrary to God’s wisdom, or to be tempted by the delicacies that these workers of iniquity have set before them. Instead, the psalmist asks that these evil ones would fall into their own traps, ensnared in their own plots and actions. Just as Christians regularly pray “lead us not into temptation and deliver us from evil” this psalmist knows the dangers of the temptations and the lure of the evil snares set for them.
The appeal of the psalm for God to guard our lips, our hearts, and ultimately our actions in an environment of temptation is a prayer that resonates for followers of every time. Hundreds of billions of dollars are spent annually on advertising that asks us to taste the delicacies set before us. The digital world and the real world are full of traps to ensnare us in actions that we know are foolish but find enticing. The life of faith involves sending up prayers to God for words and actions that are faithful instead of wicked. We all need to be delivered from temptation. I certainly have had times where I needed divine help to restrain my tongue or to give me the strength to live according to my convictions. I have needed the correction of faithful brothers and sisters in the body of Christ. For me the psalm is a reminder that we rely on God and God’s people as we attempt to live a faithful life amid a world of temptations.
[1] Nancy deClaissé-Walford lists nine verbal connections: ““Wicked” (rasa) occurs in Pss. 140:8 and 141:4, 10; “righteousness” (sadiq) in 140:3 and 141:5; “guard, keep” (samar) in 140:4 and 141: 3, 9; “lip” (sapa) in 140:3,9 and 141:3; “malicious” (ra’) in 140: 1,2, 11 and 141:4; “LORD my Lord (YHWH’adonay) in 140:7 and 141:8; “trap” (pah) in 140:5 and 141:9; “snare” (moqes) in 140:5 and 141:9; and “lend an ear” (‘azan) in 140:6 and 141:1.” (Nancy deClaisse-Walford, 2014, p. 972)
[2] Nancy deClaissé-Walford attempts to give a closer translation to the Hebrew:
5 Let the righteous strike me with hesed and reprove me;
let my head not refuse such oil
Indeed continually my prayer is against their maliciousness.
6 Let their judges be hurled down into the hands of the rock,
And then they will hear my sayings, for they are pleasant.
7 Like the furrowing and breaking up of the earth,
our bones are scattered to the mouth of Sheol. (Nancy deClaisse-Walford, 2014, p. 973)
The process of reading, reflecting and writing on scripture has been formative to my faith and growth over the past fourteen years. I’m always amazed at the discoveries in each book I’ve studied and the way previously underutilized texts have shared their world and wisdom with me. Attempting to translate scripture is more than the translation of the Greek or Hebrew into English, but it also involves translating the texts from a very different world and time to our modern ears. 1 Timothy is an excellent example of this. Sexuality, the role of women in the church and society, the expectations of the household, and the existence of slavery are just a couple of the realities that require translation between the first century and the twenty-first century. Yet I find this letter’s attempts to help Timothy address the conflicts over doctrine and practice in communities of faith in Ephesus providing a window into the life of the early church and some practical guidance for those attempting to manage the continuing reality of church conflict two millennia later.
1 Timothy gives us a window on Paul attempting to help the congregation in Ephesus receive the gospel of God’s salvation while navigating the expectations of the Roman empire and the Hellenistic world. He has to balance the church (ekklesia) with the household (oikos) especially since most churches likely met in the households of members. These early Christ followers come from very different economic backgrounds and likely have varying familiarity with the stories of Jesus and the Scriptures of the church (the Old Testament at this time). Timothy is given the challenging task of being Paul’s young emissary to these Ephesian churches where he has to provide a clear witness and exemplary example to the elders, young men, widows, young women, slaves, and masters among these households and churches. Church leadership both then and now can seem a daunting and impossible task at the same time it is viewed as a noble one.
This short letter provides numerous opportunities for reflection on the difference between the world of the early Christians and our own. For those willing to approach this text with curiosity it should provide an opportunity to refine what one believes and why one believes it. I am like many pastors who have rarely utilized the Pastoral Letters in my preaching and teaching, and I found this close examination of this letter very helpful. One of the things it challenged me to rethink was praying for those in leadership in government even when I may disagree with their beliefs or policies. The conviction that God desires to save all and the Christ was given as a ransom for all allows Paul to understand that kings, leaders, and even Caesar were in need of prayers, supplications, and thanksgivings.
St. Paul Writing His Epistles probably by Valentin de Boulogne (1618-1620)
1 Timothy 6: 1-2a
Bolded text has notes on translation below.
1Let all who are under the yoke of slavery regard their masters as worthy of all honor, so that the name of God and the teaching may not be blasphemed. 2Those who have believing masters must not be disrespectful to them on the ground that they are brothers and sisters; rather, they must serve them all the more, since those who benefit by their service are believers and beloved.
The Ephesus that Paul writes to in 1 Timothy is a very different world than our modern minds are used to. The views on sexuality, the place of women in worship, expectations of leaders, expectations of families in relation to their parents, and now slavery are all challenging topics that should invite discussion. It is also important to acknowledge that these texts have been used to impose the worldview of the ancient world or to resist the movements for change for women, enslaved people, and other groups throughout history. I do believe that as 2 Timothy states:
All scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness 2 Timothy 3:16
Engaging in the places where scripture is challenging should allow us to refine our values and why we hold them so that we may be trained to embody righteousness in our own time.
Slavery in the ancient world, particularly in the Roman empire of Paul’s time, was a part of the way that the world was ordered. Paul did not defend slavery, but he also did not condemn it. In Philemon Paul speaks on behalf of the runaway slave Onesimus and encourages him to be received back as “more than a slave, a beloved brother” (16) but acknowledges Philemon’s role as Onesimus’s master and his ability to make decisions about his slave’s future. Ephesians 6:5-8 and Colossians 3:22-24 include master/slave relations as a part of the household codes with expectations for both masters and slaves, but not challenging the reality of slavery in the Roman world. Paul is not alone in this. 1 Peter 2: 18-25, the Didache 4:10, and several other early Christian documents operate with the understanding that slavery was a part of the ordering of the Roman world. Thomas Long makes a helpful analogy when he states:
The Pastor could no more envision a society this side of heaven in which there was no slavery than those of us raised in the 1950s and 1960s could imagine the digital world we now inhabit. (Long, 2016, p. 166)
Slavery in Rome was not based on any racial dynamic. Many slaves were captured in the wars the Roman empire fought which brought slaves from Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Many scholars once believed that most slavery in the Roman world was for a fixed number of years and that it allowed opportunities for advancement, but that is now highly debated. Some slaves could operate with immense power on behalf of their master, and that is the world envisioned in many of Jesus’s parables, but slavery was a massive portion of the economy in Roman society.
Before I comment directly on the text, I want to briefly talk about slavery as it is understood in the history of the United States. The reality of chattel slavery in the United States was very different from the ancient world. Instead of being predominantly urban it was predominantly rural. It underwrote the economy in the southern United States, particularly the farming of cotton. One dynamic was that the slaves in the United States, brought forcibly from Africa, was that they were viewed as less human than their white masters. Willie James Jennings in his book The Christian Imagination: Theology and the Origins of Race discusses a deformed Christian imagination which allowed generations of missionaries, priests, bishops, as well as everyday Christians to be unable to see the common humanity of the people indigenous to Africa, Asia and the New World. Throughout the era of colonization, the colonizers practiced an inverted hospitality where they assumed that the land, the resources, and even the people were there in service to them. Yet, the same scripture read by the colonizers would eventually be read in a new light by abolitionist, slaves, and the colonized. One critical difference for Paul is that both the slaves and the masters were brothers and sisters sharing both a common humanity and a common calling in Christ.
Paul only addresses the slaves and not the masters in 1 Timothy, and it is plausible that once again Paul is addressing a problem that has emerged as both slaves and masters hear the language of being brothers and sisters in Christ while living as master/slave in the household. Those under the yoke of slavery are commanded to regard their masters as worthy of honor (tima, the same term in the previous chapter for true widows and worthy elders are entitled to). Many of the slaves in the community may not have served believing masters and actions of disrespect towards their masters may be bringing suspicion to the communities in the eyes of the surrounding community. For those whose masters were believers they may be asserting their equality in the household or refusing to serve. There is no evidence in Paul’s letters of rebellion, but the view of the masters was likely diminished in the eyes of their slaves. As Luke Timothy Johnson states:
In the ancient world, such attitudinal derogation was almost worse than open rebellion, for it more effectively subverted the social order. (Johnson, 2001, p. 288)
Yet, Paul’s language is not as one sided as the English renders it. The word translated “serve them” (euergesia) is a word of benefaction, something normally reserved for those in power. Paul’s language indicates that the slave serving the master is done from a position of power. Paul will call the believing masters believers and beloved suggesting that the slave and master share a bond that remains distinctive to their shared commitment to Jesus. I’m not willing to go quite as far as Luke Timothy Johnson to state that Paul’s language here may be more liberating than his diplomacy with Philemon (Johnson, 2001, p. 290) but Paul throughout his letters has attempted to find a way to manage the realities of being brothers and sisters in the church (ekklesia) with the realities of men and women, slave and master, rich and poor in the Roman household (oikos). Paul, like Christians of all times, live in the hope of the new creation but must continue to function in the environment and expectations of their time.
1 Timothy 6: 2b-19
Teach and urge these duties. 3Whoever teaches otherwise and does not agree with the sound words of our Lord Jesus Christ and the teaching that is in accordance with godliness4is conceited, understanding nothing, and has a morbid craving for controversy and for disputes about words. From these come envy, dissension, slander, base suspicions, 5and wrangling among those who are depraved in mind and bereft of the truth, imagining that godliness is a means of gain. 6Of course, there is great gain in godliness combined with contentment, 7for we brought nothing into the world, so that we can take nothing out of it, 8but if we have food and clothing, we will be content with these. 9But those who want to be rich fall into temptation and are trapped by many senseless and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction. 10For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil, and in their eagerness to be rich some have wandered away from the faith and pierced themselves with many pains.
11But as for you, man of God, shun all this; pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance, gentleness. 12Fight the good fightof the faith; take hold of the eternal life to which you were called and for which you made the good confession in the presence of many witnesses. 13In the presence of God, who gives life to all things, and of Christ Jesus, who in his testimony before Pontius Pilate made the good confession, I charge you 14to keep the commandment without spot or blame until the manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ, 15which he will bring about at the right time—he who is the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords. 16It is he alone who has immortality and dwells in unapproachable light, whom no one has ever seen or can see; to him be honor and eternal dominion. Amen. 17As for those who in the present age are rich, command them not to be haughty or to set their hopes on the uncertainty of riches but rather on God, who richly provides us with everything for our enjoyment. 18They are to do good, to be rich in good works, generous, and ready to share, 19thus storing up for themselves the treasure of a good foundation for the future, so that they may take hold of the life that really is life.
Paul encourages Timothy to continue to teach and urge the congregation to maintain their responsibilities in the church and the home. Those teaching otherwise (heterodidaskalia– literally another or other teaching) are in contrast with the healthy (hugianousin where our modern word hygiene comes from) words received from Jesus and the teaching in accordance with godliness (eusebia one of Paul’s favorite words throughout this letter, as mentioned before it has elements of religion, piety, godliness and it involves the entire practice of faith). In contrast to the healthy words of Jesus are the sick (nouson NRSVue morbid) words which crave controversy and are deluded[1] disputing about words. From these other teachings, which have wandered away from the healthy words received from Jesus, spring a list of vices which end with the idea of eusebia (religion/piety) being utilized for gain.
The idea of religion/piety being utilized for personal gain is a theme that emerges throughout history. Jesus criticized religious leaders in his time who:
As he taught, he said, “Beware of the scribes, who like to walk around in long robes and to be greeted with respect in the marketplaces and to have the best seats in the synagogues and places of honor at banquets! They devour widows’ houses and for the sake of appearance say long prayers. They will receive the greater condemnation.” Mark 12: 38-40
Paul makes it clear that elders who teach well are worthy of honor (tima) which includes financial compensation, but it is plausible that some leaders have emerged who have utilized their position in the community to benefit their honor and financial status. It is also highly likely that the financial troubles of some of the widows in the community may be related to these teachers who in Paul’s view have misled these women.
It is also important to acknowledge that reading 1 Timothy, along with the other New Testament letters, undermines the sociological assumption that I was taught in seminary: that the early Christians all came from among the poor. Summarizing several themes from the letter Luke Timothy Johnson points out:
We have already seen that some believers were slave owners (6:1-2). Some women were able at worship to make a display of their extravagant clothing, hairdos, and jewelry (2:9). Some families were in the position to support the poor widows of their households (5:4, 8, 16). I have already suggested that the presence of such visible wealth presented temptations to leaders. …Paul takes pain to ensure that supervisors and helpers not be lovers of money (3:3) or do anything for a profit (3:8). (Johnson, 2001, pp. 302-303)
Paul points to a godliness (eusebia) combined with contentment (autarkeia) in contrast with the use of godliness for gain. Autarkeia is an important virtue for Stoics and Cynics, but Paul is not opposed to using an idea from the surrounding culture to communicate how the life of faith is practiced. Paul uses the same term in Philippians 4:11, ”Not that I am referring to being in need, for I have learned to be content (autarkeia) with whatever I have.” In contrast those who are not content and desire to be rich are faced with many destructive temptations.
The most famous verse in 1 Timothy is verse ten, and the NRSVue correctly identifies that “the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil.” Most earlier translations added the exclusive “the” which is not present in the Greek. The exclusive translations seem to indicate in this proverb that the love of money is the only root of evil, but the Greek indicates that this desire is one among the many roots. Yet, it is a critical root and Paul will return one additional time to how followers of Jesus with wealth are to act to prevent them from wandering away from the faith and being pierced by many pains.
Paul turns again to Timothy encouraging him to pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance, and gentleness instead of wealth. Fight the good fight here is the language of sports, unlike 1:18 where the Greek is the language of military conflict, where Timothy is encourage to strive towards the life of the new age (NRSVue eternal life) which Timothy has confessed. This is one of only three times where Pilate is given the title Pontius in the bible[2] and Jesus’s confession before Pilate likely refers to a narrative similar to the passion narrative of either the synoptic gospels or the gospel of John. This may also indicate an early confession emerging among the church where Pilate’s title is linked to his person as occurs in the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds. Paul and Timothy await the manifestation of Jesus which will be brought about in God’s time (kairos).[3] The language of verse fifteen and sixteen may have been a confession of faith utilized in the Ephesian communities. The statement that no one has ever seen God likely originates in God’s words to Moses in Exodus 33:20 and echoes in the conclusion of the prologue of John’s gospel:” No one has ever seen God. It is the only Son, himself God, who is close to the Father’s heart, who has made him known.” (John 1:18)
Paul returns to how those with wealth are to live as believers. One of the dangers throughout the bible related to wealth is that the wealthy one believes they are self-reliant and they fail to acknowledge the gifts they have received from God. The love of money may be a root of all kinds of evil, but Paul does not view wealth as inherently evil. If they have been given wealth, they are to use that wealth to be generous, do good, and share. Paul echoes the language of the gospels of storing up treasures (Matthew 6: 19-20; 19:21; Luke 12:21, 33-34). Engaging wealth as a gift to be generous with rather than something to be loved and sought after enables the faithful one to take hold of the life that really is life.
1 Timothy 6: 20-21
20Timothy, guard the deposit entrusted to you. Avoid the profane chatter and contradictions of what is falsely called knowledge; 21by professing it some have missed the mark as regards the faith. Grace be with you.
Paul closes with a final reminder to Timothy to protect the gospel he learned from Paul in the face of competing messages. This other teaching is falsely named (Greek pseudonumoo- pseudonym) knowledge. Other in Ephesus, and likely elsewhere, have focused on the wrong thing and missed the mark. Timothy is to hold fast and guard the precious gift of faith he has received and Paul closes the letter wishing for grace to rest upon his young delegate trying restore order and unity in faith to this community which has been fractured by bad teaching and harmful practices.
[1] Jouette Bassler notes that deluded is a better translation of tetyphotai than the NRSVue’s conceited. (Bassler, 1996, p. 109)
[3]Kairos time as opposed to chronos (chronological) time is appointed time or special time. Within the world of the New Testament is was time appointed by God for a specific purpose.
Book 75: The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie by Muriel Spark
This is a series of reflections reading through Time Magazine’s top 100 novels as selected by Lev Grossman and Richard Lacayo published since 1923 (when Time magazine was founded). For me this is an attempt to broaden my exposure to authors I may not encounter otherwise, especially as a person who was not a liberal arts major in college. Time’s list is alphabetical, so I decided to read through in a random order, and I plan to write a short reflection on each novel.
Muriel Spark’s book The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie is set in 1930s Edinburgh where Jean Brodie is an influential teacher to six girls (Sandy, Rose, Mary, Jenny, Monica, and Eunice) which become known throughout their school years as the Brodie set. Jean Brodie continually challenges both the educational and social norms of the school where she teaches and the headmistress, Miss Mackay, is continually trying to find a justification to force Jean Brodie to retire. Miss Jean Brodie considers herself to be in the prime of her life and believes that the Brodie set are the beneficiaries of her enlightened ideas.
I struggled with this short book. Partially it was Jean Brodie’s enthusiastic reception of both Mussolini and Hitler, knowing how history would play out. Partially it was the emotionally formal atmosphere of English/Scottish society in the first half of the twentieth century, a formality which Jean Brodie actively rebels against, but it forms the world of the story. Mainly it was her desire to set up one of her students to have an affair with a teacher who she loves but refuses because the teacher is married. I found the character of Jean Brodie shallow and uninteresting and her desire to utilize one of her students to vicariously experience this sexual relationship crossed an ethical line for me. I know this is a well-loved book by many people, but it was not for me.
An Old Woman Reading, Probably the Prophetess Hannah by Rembrandt (1631)
1 Timothy 5
Highlighted words have notes on translation below.
1Do not speak harshly to an older man, but speak to him as to a father, to younger men as brothers, 2to older women as mothers, to younger women as sisters—with absolute purity. 3Honor widows who are really widows. 4If a widow has children or grandchildren, they should first learn their religious duty to their own family and make some repayment to their parents, for this is pleasing in God’s sight. 5The real widow, left alone, has set her hope on God and continues in supplications and prayers night and day, 6but the widow who lives for pleasure is dead even while she lives. 7Give these commands as well, so that they may be above reproach. 8And whoever does not provide for relatives, and especially for family members, has denied the faith and is worse than an unbeliever. 9Let a widow be put on the list if she is not less than sixty years old and has been married only once; 10she must be well attested for her good works, as one who has brought up children, shown hospitality, washed the saints’ feet, helped the afflicted, and devoted herself to doing good in every way. 11But refuse to put younger widows on the list, for when their sensual desires alienate them from Christ, they want to marry, 12and so they incur condemnation for having violated their first pledge. 13Besides that, they learn to be idle, gadding about from house to house, and they are not merely idle but also gossips and busybodies, saying what they should not say. 14So I would have younger widows marry, bear children, and manage their households, so as to give the adversary no occasion to revile us. 15For some have already turned away to follow Satan. 16If any believing woman has relatives who are widows, let her assist them; let the church not be burdened, so that it can assist those who are real widows. 17Let the elders who rule well be considered worthy of double honor, especially those who labor in preaching and teaching, 18for the scripture says, “You shall not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain” and “The laborer deserves to be paid.” 19Never accept any accusation against an elder except on the evidence of two or three witnesses. 20As for those who persist in sin, rebuke them in the presence of all, so that the rest also may stand in fear. 21In the presence of God and of Christ Jesus and of the elect angels, I warn you to keep these instructions without prejudice, doing nothing on the basis of partiality. 22Do not ordain anyone hastily, and do not participate in the sins of others; keep yourself pure. 23No longer drink only water, but take a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent ailments. 24The sins of some people are conspicuous and precede them to judgment, while the sins of others follow them there. 25So also good works are conspicuous, and even when they are not, they cannot remain hidden.
Throughout this chapter the duties of the household (Greek oikos) and the duties of the church (Greek ekklesia) are brought together to address two specific groups in the church in Ephesus. The bulk of the discussion is focused on widows (Greek chera) but is bracketed by the discussion of relating to and disciplining elders/older men (Greek presbyteros). Although the two initial verses open with four groups: older men/elders, younger men, older women, and younger women; younger men do not enter into the discussion of the chapter but the proper role of older and younger women does heavily enter the discussion of the obligation of the household and the church in relation to widows.
Modern readers who come from a society with much greater opportunities for women may feel that Paul is attempting to unfairly suppress the role of women throughout 1 Timothy. Addressing issues related to women occupy a large portion of the letter, and as Luke Timothy Johnson highlights:
Certainly, there is some sort of unrest among the women in the Ephesian church. They are wearing expensive clothing and extravagant hairdos in the assembly (2: 9-10) and are asserting the right to teach there (2: 11-15). In this chapter, we see some of them charged with self-indulgence (5:6) and with being gossipers as they move from house to house, saying things they should not (5:13). Neither is there any doubt that Paul proposes that women generally should be in subordination (2:11) and that younger women should remain in domestic roles (2:15; 5:14). (Johnson, 2001, p. 271)
We know that one of the false teachings that Paul is confronting in this letter is teachers forbidding marriage (4:3) which may be creating a group of women who are reliant on the church, and perhaps these false teachers for support. The word translated widow (chera) refers at its most fundamental level to a woman living without a husband. The most common meaning is a woman whose husband has died, but it is not the only meaning. (Bassler, 1996, p. 93) One educated guess at the situation Paul is addressing is that the false teachers have created a group of younger women, claiming the title of widows, who are creating a financial strain on the church and without having a household to manage are moving from home to home in the community creating issues. More on this possibility below, but prior to dealing with this potential group of women Paul deals with the responsibilities of every member of the community of faith (ekklesia) for their household.
Honoring widows who are truly widows is not merely paying respect. Underlying this discussion is the commandment to ‘honor one’s father and mother.” The expectation of the commandment on honoring parents is that children would support and care for their parents in their old age. Children and grandchildren of a widow cannot abandon the responsibilities of the household by expecting the church to care for their mothers/grandmothers who cannot care for themselves. As mentioned in chapter two, there are very few opportunities for women in the ancient world to support themselves and widows without a family to support them are one of the primary vulnerable populations, along with orphans and foreigners, highlighted throughout the scriptures. Children and grandchildren in scriptures, as well as the expectation of the ancient world, has a duty to care for their parents. Paul in verse four brings together the word for household (oikos) and the word for religion/piety/religious responsibility (eusebias) to link the expectation both within the church and the family that children/grandchildren/relatives care for their vulnerable women family members. Failure to provide for a family members is a denial of the faith and they are unfaithful (apistia-literally without faith) and bad/evil (kakos). Before the community of faith assumes the responsibility of caring for the widows the expectation is that the household would care for its own allowing the church to care for the widows who have no one to rely upon except God and God’s people.
It is plausible that there were widows who were cared for by their families and still expected additional support from the church and these may have been some of the women dressing in fine clothing and jewelry that Paul criticized in chapter two. Paul attempts to limit the widows cared for by the church by wanting them to be sixty years old or older, an age beyond the expectation to remarry. To be the wife of one man has a similar range of interpretive options highlighted in the discussion of overseers and deacons in chapter two. To be honored and financially compensated there also is the expectation of a life well lived according to the values of the culture: doing good deeds, raising children, showing hospitality, washing feet, and helping the afflicted. I disagree with James D. G. Dunn’s evaluation that washing feet showed the lower status of widows and wives. (NIB XI: 819) Instead, foot washing was a mark of communal service expected of disciples (John 13) and was likely a practice of the early churches. For these widows, who were given not only respect but also financial support by the congregation, they were expected to live a life that modeled the expectations of both the household in the ancient world (oikos) and the church (ekklesia).
The instructions given for younger widows are likely to come from the struggles Timothy is attempting to deal with in Ephesus. I do find it plausible that some of the teachers who had been forbidding marriage had created a group of women who were straining the economic resources of the church and perhaps creating dissension as they moved among households without the responsibilities of their own household to manage. When we bring our modern expectations of relationships into this passage, we misunderstand the world Paul is addressing. Relationships in the ancient world were primarily an economic arrangement with romantic implications instead of romantic relationships with economic implications. Most marriages in the ancient world were arranged marriages. We may view things very differently in our time, but being married, bearing children, and managing a household were the inherited expectations of women. This is why being a widow or being barren is such an existential threat in the ancient world for women. The term utilized for managing a household (oikodespot– house ‘despot’/lord) is used frequently in Matthew’s gospel in Jesus’ parables to describe the master of a household.[1] Although women and men exercised different roles in the household, women had significant responsibilities in managing a household in the ancient world often freeing men to participate in a more public way in the society. Women without this role in the ancient world, especially if they were separated from their parental home, would be economically vulnerable and likely relied both on the church and individual households.
I want to avoid speculating too much on the young ‘widows’ and the elders and any real or perceived sexual impropriety occurring in these Ephesian congregations, but it is worth noting that Paul three times calls for Timothy to be pure (4:12; 5:2, 22) and in this chapter he is to be pure with ‘younger women’ and ‘not participate in the sins of others.’ These young ‘widows’ who may have pledged themselves to Christ likely find themselves envying the security and relationships of other women in the community. These young ‘widows’ are accused by Paul of spreading gossip[2] and being busybodies who are creating problems for the community and possibly in households as well. Their actions have given external adversaries reasons to view the community with suspicion and have perhaps pulled some away from the faith through following these false teachers or by discrediting the congregation by its inability to manage these women.
The chapter begins by telling Timothy not to speak harshly/sharply rebuke[3] an elder/older man (Greek presbyter). Now in verse seventeen the discussion returns to elders (presbyters) and the contrast between an elder who ‘rules well’ and one in need of correction before God and the community. A good elder is worthy of double honor (tima the same term used for ‘real widows’ being honored) and it is possible that this indicates a worthy elder is to be compensated twice what a widow is, but although the Paul’s quotations indicate that elders are paid, the double amount may be too literal of a reading. The elders who toil in preaching (literally the word) and teaching are highlighted here. Paul quotes Deuteronomy 25:4 and a saying of Jesus that will be included in Matthew 10:10 and Luke 10:7. Although the gospels were probably not written[4] the early communities did likely have a collection of stories and sayings of Jesus that they shared and echo in the Pauline and other early letters. The requirement of multiple witnesses to accept an accusation against an elder follows the expectations of Deuteronomy 19: 15 which requires multiple witness to convict any person. Yet those who are accused and continue in their sin are to be brought before God, Christ, and the elect angels[5] presumably within the assembled congregation. Timothy is charged not to quickly lay hands on a person, presumably referring to the laying on of hands by the elders in which Timothy was appointed to his leadership role in the church[6], to not share in the sins of others, and to remain pure. Timothy is cautioned not to quickly grant authority before the individual has demonstrated they are worthy of the trust bestowed on them.
The note to no longer drink only water can be read in two ways. A water only regimen in the ancient world may not reflect a dietary choice but may be a statement of an ascetic lifestyle and may be reflecting some of the actions of the false teachers. (Long, 2016, p. 158) It is possible that Timothy, in attempting to bring back some of these false teachers and their followers, is adopting some of their practices to attempt to reach these members and Paul is counseling him not to do so. Yet the mention of the stomach and frequent ailments presents another possibility. Water in the ancient world was a frequent source of bacteria and infections. There was no water purification and ancient sanitary practices, especially in a large city, could easily impact water quality. Wine was often viewed as a safer and more sanitary option than water. With Timothy’s responsibilities it is possible to imagine him in the way James D.G. Dunn does:
But in context we can perhaps imagine an unduly serious young man whose heavy responsibilities caused him considerable stress, manifested in stomach cramps and other ailments. (NIB XI: 823)
Perhaps Paul is merely giving some guidance for a young leader who struggles to care for himself as he ministers to these challenging communities in Ephesus.
Throughout the letter Paul has encouraged good works, and like the letter of James there is the expectation of a way of life that is reflective of the faith. Some of the actions of the church will conform to the expectations of society and the household while others will in positive ways be a light among the community. Sometimes their good work is seen immediately, other times it becomes apparent gradually among the community. Timothy has been given a heavy task in correcting the elders and women in the community and restoring them to a life that is faithful both to the household and to the community of faith. Timothy is called to help these early followers of Christ balance their religious responsibilities (eusebias) with their household responsibilities (oikos).
[2] The Greek phylaros refers to gossip of “a serious and slanderous sort.” (Johnson, 2001, p. 267)
[3] The Greek epiplessein is a harsh word which is a sharp rebuke and even can connote physical striking. (Johnson, 2001, p. 260)
[4] Assuming an early date for 1 Timothy when Paul is the author. Some scholars place 1 Timothy as a later document which may post-date Matthew and Luke.
[5] The Greek angelos can mean angels or messengers. Most translations assume a group of elect angels here, but the reading of human messenger is possible.
[6] The NRSVue’s translation of this as ‘ordain’ assumes a more complete understanding of ministry than likely existed in the early church. The laying on of hands was a sign of granting authority but it does not necessarily grant an existing title with responsibilities like it does as church authority becomes more formal.
1Now the Spirit expressly says that in later times some will renounce the faith by paying attention to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons, 2through the hypocrisy of liars whose consciences are seared with a hot iron. 3They forbid marriage and abstain from certain foods, which God created to be received with thanksgiving by those who believe and know the truth. 4For everything created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected, provided it is received with thanksgiving, 5for it is sanctified by God’s word and by prayer.
6If you put these instructions before the brothers and sisters, you will be a good servant of Christ Jesus, nourished on the words of the faith and of the sound teaching that you have followed. 7Have nothing to do with profane and foolish tales. Train yourself in godliness, 8for, while physical training is of some value, godliness is valuable in every way, holding promise for both the present life and the life to come. 9The saying is sureand worthy of full acceptance. 10For to this end we toil and suffer reproach, because we have our hope set on the living God, who is the Savior of all people, especially of those who believe. 11Command and teach these things. 12Let no one despise your youth, but set the believers an example in speech and conduct, in love, in faith, in purity. 13Until I arrive, give attention to the public reading of scripture, to exhorting, to teaching. 14Do not neglect the gift that is in you, which was given to you through prophecy with the laying on of hands by the council of elders. 15Put these things into practice, devote yourself to them, so that all may see your progress. 16Pay close attention to yourself and to your teaching; continue in these things, for in doing this you will save both yourself and your hearers.
The apostle Paul’s ministry involved him seeding and supporting churches throughout modern day Turkey, Greece, and beyond. These churches, likely meeting in the homes of individual members, received some formation during the duration of Paul’s presence with them but as Paul’s attention is spread across a larger number of cities and churches the need for instruction becomes apparent. Thankfully for later generations, Paul did a lot of this instruction and correction through letters attempting to continue to guide and shape this young but rapidly growing and evolving church. Paul now writes to Timothy as he attempts to counter the false teachings and practices which are dividing the church in Ephesus both to encourage his younger counterpart and to support his work in correcting these beliefs which are infiltrating the life of the community.
The early Christian community did expect God to speak through the Spirit in prophecy, proclamation, and in acts of healing and power. In Corinth Paul had to counsel that congregation on how to utilize these gifts of the Spirit, but the assumption throughout Paul’s letter is that the Spirit is active and communicating with this young community of faith. Now Paul’s instructions are framed within the statement of the Spirit, presumably through prophecy, that in later times some will renounce (Greek apostesontai, where we get the English word apostate) the faith and that behind these deviant teaching are deceitful spirits and demons. Modern readers may be uncomfortable that Paul is ‘demonizing’ these false teachers, but for Paul this is a matter of critical importance to the life of the church and the individuals. The actions of these teachers is causing strife within the church, leading some down paths which are contrary to the faith, and likely leading others to walk away from these communities in conflict. Paul feels that the gospel is at stake and this is a matter of life and death. The hypocrisy of liars (Greek hupokrisei pseudologon, where our word hypocrisy comes from and ‘false words’) has cauterized the consciences of these teachers. As Jouette M. Bassler can state about the Greek word behind cauterized/seared with a hot iron:
Burning with a hot iron (Gk. Kausteriazein) was done to numb or cauterize a wound, to punish, or to identify ownership (NEB, cf 2 Tim 2:26). Any of these meanings could apply here; the essential point is one of contrast between those whose consciences are good (1:5, 19) or pure (3:9; 2 Tim 1:3) and those whose consciences are rejected. (Bassler, 1996, p. 80)
The two false teachings and practices highlighted in the letter are forbidding marriage and abstaining from certain foods. The forbidding of marriage may have led to some of the instructions on widows in chapter five, but it also fundamentally undermines the social structure of the ancient world. In the ancient world there were few opportunities for women to be self-supporting (outside of prostitution or being a courtesan among the upper class). It is possible that these teachers are anticipating the advent of Christ’s kingdom in a short period of time and view the current time as unworthy of investing in, but Paul may view their actions as turning away from God’s intent for relationships in creation. The actions of these teachers may also be causing these young churches to be viewed with suspicion by their neighbors and placing a stumbling block before those who need to hear the gospel. Paul wrestled with controversies around eating throughout his ministry, both within a Jewish context attempting to maintain the distinctive eating practices of the Jewish people and imposing dietary and other expectation on early Christians but also within the Greco-Roman world where meat was often associated with communal sacrifices to other gods. Paul explicitly wraps both marriage and eating of food under the things God created for humanity to be received with thanksgiving (Greek euchapistias, the word where our English eucharist comes from). These eucharistic gifts are made holy/sanctified (Greek hagiazetai) by God’s word and prayer. This language reminds me of Luther’s discussion of the sacraments where he connects the receiving of the physical element (water, bread, wine) with the Word and command of God.
Paul expects Timothy to place the contents of the letters before the Ephesian congregations, and in doing so Timothy is a good servant (literally deacon) of Christ Jesus. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the title of deacon and the act of serving are used interchangeably in the early church and the roles are not rigidly defined. Timothy can be a representative of Paul charged with overseeing the congregations in Ephesus, and yet always remains a servant. Timothy has received faithful teaching in contrast to the false words of the troublesome teachers operating in Ephesus. Yet, even Timothy is charged to stay away from profane teaching and ‘foolish tales’ (literally old women myths). I can understand the NRSVue’s discomfort, feeling that ‘old wives tales’ is a translation pejorative to women, but through most of history there have been ‘old wives’ tales’ that were a place where stories, beliefs, and practices, some which may have contradicted the teaching of the church and other authorities, were handed down. Critical to 1 Timothy is the Greek eusebias which means piety, religion, or as the NRSVue renders it godliness. I prefer religion here although it is also an imperfect translation since many think of this either in terms of religious belief or practice within a church. In modern American thought godliness is next to cleanliness and this term’s connection with religious practice has been lost. Piety is an important idea in the Greco-Roman world, but it’s reception in English is often limited to actions that happen in the context of worship and prayer rather than the more wholistic idea the eusebias points to. Eusebias for Paul is something that’s value far exceeds physical training, which Paul uses in several metaphors in his letters, but this term for Paul seems to encompass faith and practice, including but not limited to worship and prayer. Just as the athlete endures physical toil and suffering, so the person training in religion/godliness will endure toil and suffering from the surrounding world as it resists these practices and beliefs as well as the demonic/false teachings of those causing divisions among the community of faith. As James D. G. Dunn articulates:
The writer makes clear that such growth and development depend on training and the discipline involved (vv. 7-8); they involve hard work and sweat-inducing exertion (v. 15). Here again a choice once made has to be repeatedly reaffirmed and lived out. (NIB XI: 816)
The saying is sure (the Greek is literally faith(ful) the word pistis ho logos) and worthy of all acceptance appears for the second time highlighting the statement of faith that the faithful suffer and toil over. Previously in 1 Timothy 1: 15 the faithful saying was that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners. Now, their hope is in the living God who is the Savior of all people. It is a common biblical belief that the God of the bible (as well as of Israel and the people of God) is a living and active God who is actively engaged in the world. Savior, as mentioned in the first chapter, is a common Old Testament title for God and was likely utilized in the communities in Ephesus. That God is the Savior of all people may point to the idea of a universal salvation or it may be intended to expand the horizon of God’s salvation beyond Israel. The idea of God saving all being indicative of a universalistic hope is congruent with the follow on phrase which declares especially those who believe. Some readers view this phrase as correcting the previous one, but I read this as highlighting those who believe within the larger set of those who God intends to save. Although the method of argumentation is different, since the question is likely different in Ephesus, it has a similar logic to Paul’s rationale for God utilizing the faithlessness of Israel to include the Gentiles and then the grafting of the Gentiles onto the holy tree to point to God regrafting on the branches of Israel that have fallen off so that along with the Gentiles all Israel will be saved (Romans 11).
The instructions to Timothy starting in verse eleven encourage him to not only command and teach but set an example in speech and conduct. Although authenticity is a word of our time, the expectation of congruity between one’s proclamation and one’s actions was very important in rhetorical expectations of the Greco-Roman world. As Luke Timothy Johnson states:
We are reminded of how seriously ancient philosophers regarded the responsibility of teachers to live in accord with what they professed…Since philosophy in the Hellenistic period was considered to be essentially a matter of integrity of life, and since virtue was thought to be learned first and best by the imitation of living models, the teacher has no greater duty than to live in a manner consonant with the principles he enunciated. (Johnson, 2001, p. 255)
The speech, conduct, love, faith and purity which Timothy exhibits will be as crucial in his work to bring healing and wholeness to the community as the commands and teaching he does. Timothy may be young among the elders of the Ephesian church, but his example should demonstrate his worth along with the calling he has received through prophecy[1] and laying on of hands. Paul and the council of elders (presbyteriou where the term Presbyter comes from and the Presbyterian church gets its name). It is not clear whether the prophecy came at the moment of the laying on of hands by the council of elders or before, and whether this council of elders was in Jerusalem, in Ephesus, or in some other place in the Pauline mission area, but Timothy has been set aside for his ministry representing Paul, but more essentially representing Christ. Timothy is called to live a public life which bears witness to the teaching entrusted to him in word and in action which forms a powerful example for his hearers.
The formation of the overseers and deacons in the previous chapters and the expectations of Timothy in our current chapter point to the public life of those set aside for roles of leadership in the church. The life of a leader in the church expects that their faith and practice will be an example of the faith and practices they are attempting to cultivate in their communities. Yet, we live in a time where postmodernity and other forces have made talking about standards both for the church and its leaders difficult. Luke Timothy Johnson continues his statement from earlier stating:
The widespread unwillingness in contemporary Western culture to provide direct and unambiguous moral instruction or to assume responsibility for acting in a manner that can be exemplary for others would have been unintelligible in antiquity. (Johnson, 2001, p. 255)
The damage done both to the community’s reputation and the trust within the community when leaders and members do not act in a way that reflects the faith they proclaim is profound. The church has always had divisions, but only a leader who embodies the faith for the community can begin to rebuild trust and authentically proclaim the gospel. Timothy, and faith leaders who follow him into broken communities, brings light into the darkness of division, clarity into the confusion and clashes over practices and beliefs, and healing so that the gospel can be heard both in the church and in the surrounding world. Failure to attend to a life that embodies the gospel places unnecessary stumbling blocks before the entirety of the world that the living God of the gospel desires to save.
[1] Paul also mentioned the prophecy over Timothy in 1:18.
H.W. Brands. The Strange Death of American Liberalism.
For me a five-star book is something that either I want to read again or something that is so profound it makes an immediate impact. There are lots of ways that books can be compelling: a unique idea, an interesting set of characters, a complex plot, an artistic use of the English language and more. Reading is also a subjective experience, so what appeals to me as a reader may be very different for you. I read a lot for both pleasure and work, but these short reviews are a way for me to show my appreciation for the work and the craft of the author of the reviewed work.
H.W. Brands is a prolific writer and historian who teaches at the University of Texas at Austin. I first encountered his work while I was on sabbatical and became fascinated with the story of the American West and his Dreams of Eldorado: a History of the American West was an insightful introduction to many of the people and places of the history of the west. I picked up this book because the title intrigued me, but I did not expect this twenty-five-year-old book to be so insightful for our present moment in the life of America. Brands argues that going back to the founding of the United States most American were skeptical of a centralized government and Jeffersonian populism enjoyed more support than Hamilton’s view of a strong centralized national government. Liberalism in Brand’s argument is the belief that government can do many things to benefit the population which includes not only programs like Social Security or Medicare but also large infrastructure projects like the Interstate Highway System. He argues that the United States is a nation skeptical of strong government except when they need the government to protect them from enemies. During wartime Americans have accepted the necessity of the government consolidating authority that they would not accept in any other situation. In the aftermath of World War II the United States entered the Cold War which allowed the government to continue to operate with expanded powers with broad support from the people and leaders in both political parties. Brands places the death of American liberalism in the Nixon administration as the distrust in the government engendered during the Vietnam War and the disclosures of the manipulations and deceptions during the Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon administrations are revealed. This skepticism found it’s popular voicing in Reagan’s famous statement about the nine most terrifying words in the English language, “I’m from the government, and I’m here to help.” Yet, even Reagan utilized the threat of the Soviet Union to expand the foreign policy and defense spending of the United States.
H.W. Brands’s framing of American liberalism as the belief that the national government can and should do many things on behalf of the American people rather than state and local governments is helpful even if many will find it controversial. The book was published in November 2001, shortly after September 11 created another crisis which allowed the Bush and later administrations to expand the power of the government and gave birth to a short rebirth to a liberalism that could underwrite both a neo-conservative increase of government’s role in the policing of American life as well as the government’s expanded role in the healthcare system during the Obama administration. But it also explains the rise of the tea party movement in the Republican party and the eventual rise of Trump populism. It also helps to explain the isolationism that is rising among portions of the American populace that want a pull-back from American commitments to the post World War II order. Brands’s argument is provocative, and many people disagree with his conclusions, but it was insightful for me to understand why many citizens may not see the same value in the federal government’s role on behalf of its people that I do.
For me a five-star book is something that either I want to read again or something that is so profound it makes an immediate impact. There are lots of ways that books can be compelling: a unique idea, an interesting set of characters, a complex plot, an artistic use of the English language and more. Reading is also a subjective experience, so what appeals to me as a reader may be very different for you. I read a lot for both pleasure and work, but these short reviews are a way for me to show my appreciation for the work and the craft of the author of the reviewed work.
Empire of the Vampire was my introduction to Jay Kristoff and I was immediately hooked as a reader. This is my third reading of this book and even knowing how the plot unfolds the book still is phenomenally enjoyable. This initial volume introduces us to Gabriel de Leon, the last Silversaint (vampire hunter), Jean-Francios the vampire recording Gabriel’s story and Dior le Chance who Gabriel assumes a protective role over. The story jumps around as Gabriel reaches portions that are too painful to deal with at the moment, but this gives a sense of reality as the story jumps from his narration to the moments where he breaks the fourth wall with Jean-Francois. The story is dark, the narration of the conflict scenes so rich I could imagine them as a manga or anime (I think that is the only way you could faithfully replicate the speed and damage of these vampire vs Silversaint fights). The world cloaked in darkness, the place of religion and mysticism, the rich imagery in a perilous world, there is so much to love in this long but engaging story of a world where vampires are no longer consigned to the night and humanity hangs on the precipice. But beyond the incredible plot, worldbuilding, and hard driving action are the characters and their interactions with one another. There were so many times the dialogue between the characters echoed the pattern of conversations I had with people in the army, the way men rib each other to show they care, the language, and verbal duels that went along with the physical trials. There were countless times I would look up from the page and say, “Damn. Jay Kristoff can write.” I have listened to the audio versions of the three volumes in the trilogy but reading the physical novel you have the benefit of Bon Orthwick’s illustrations scattered throughout the chapters.
Each of the volumes of this trilogy were the best read of the year they were released and there is some regret in coming to the end of this massive journey. Jay Kristoff will not be for every reader: his language is the language of fighting men which includes frequent swearing (and he has some really interesting ways of utilizing the coarser parts of the English language) and there are several very spicy erotic scenes throughout the books. It is a dark world (literally and metaphorically) where no human character or animal character is safe. It is fantasy with horror and romantic elements set in a beautifully imagined world. It is a poignantly human story of characters who walk through the hell of war, betrayal, death, and times that seem hopeless. Even on a third read I did not want to put this almost eight-hundred-page book down, each time I picked it up it hooked me. I loved this dark gothic story of faith and fighting in a world struggling against four vampiric armies. The symbology and the myth, the conversations and the combat, the characters and the plot all come together to form the favorite trilogy I have ever read.
Highlighted terms or phrases have notes below on translation.
1 Timothy 3: 1-13 Qualifications of Overseers and Men and Women in Serving Roles
1The saying is sure: whoever aspires to the office of bishop desires a noble task. 2Now a bishop must be above reproach, married only once, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, an apt teacher, 3not a drunkard, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, and not a lover of money. 4He must manage his own household well, keeping his children submissive and respectful in every way, 5for if someone does not know how to manage his own household, how can he take care of God’s church? 6He must not be a recent convert, or he may be puffed up with conceit and fall into the condemnation of the devil. 7Moreover, he must be well thought of by outsiders, so that he may not fall into disgrace and the snare of the devil.
8Deaconslikewise must be serious, not double-tongued, not indulging in much wine, not greedy for money; 9they must hold fast to the mystery of the faith with a clear conscience. 10And let them first be tested; then, if they prove themselves blameless, let them serve as deacons. 11Womenlikewise must be serious, not slanderers, but temperate, faithful in all things. 12Let deacons be married only once, and let them manage their children and their households well; 13for those who serve well as deacons gain a good standing for themselves and great boldness in the faith that is in Christ Jesus.
When we hear the titles of bishop and deacons and we talk about their role in taking care of the church we can easily overlay modern positions, authority, structure and assumptions onto this letter. To translate the Greek word episkopos (where the Episcopal church gets its name) as bishop for most modern readers conjures men (and women depending on your tradition) in ornate vestments participating and leading large numbers of churches and leaders. Deacons (Greek diakonoi) within most modern churches would fit somewhere lower in the hierarchy than bishops and in many places this role still maintains the connection with the service ministries of the church. Yet the church at the time Paul is writing to Timothy is far different than its modern incarnation.
The early churches in Ephesus carried out many of the activities that the synagogues did for the Jewish community throughout the diaspora: They prayed (2: 1-3), read and explained scripture (4:13), and cared for widows (5:3-16) and likely other vulnerable members of the community. However, it is significant that instead of the adoption of religious titles like priest, or even high priest, of the Jewish as well as other Roman temples, they utilize episkopos and diakonoi: “overseer” and “server.” The term episkopos was commonly used for positions with oversight, particularly financial oversight, in the surrounding culture. (Bassler, 1996, p. 64)
It is important to remember that the early church met primarily in the homes of one of the community members. The household of both individuals as well as the household of God is central to the language of 1 Timothy. As James D.G. Dunn states:
Just as good order in the state (2: 1-2) led into thoughts of good order in the household (2: 9-15), so also that leads into thoughts of good order in the church (3: 1-13). (NIB XI: 804)
Men in the Greco-Roman world who were viewed as leaders were expected to manage their household well. This is a world before the separation of work and home: the management of the home (Greek oikos) is foundational to the economic outputs (Greek oikonomia literally house management) for not only the home but for the city and empire. A man with disobedient children or an unstable marriage was viewed in the ancient world as a poor home-maker, and a person unable to manage their household was unlikely to be a good manager of the household of God.
It is likely that “overseers” or “bishops” were hosting gatherings of the faithful in their homes and their hospitality. The receiving and sending off of guests in the ancient world was a central role in households throughout the Greco-Roman and Jewish world, and it is likely that the hospitality expected of the episkopos could be costly as well as the frequent presence of Christians in their home.
The virtues listed for the “overseer” or “bishop” are virtues that would be “marks of good character” (Long, 2016, p. 88) throughout the culture. Being beyond reproach introduces the list of virtues which focus more on how they embody their faith in their living than their mere knowledge of faith. “Married once” is literally “the husband of one woman” and can be understood to address a range of meanings: a man who marries once and if widowed does not remarry, or monogamous rather than polygamous, or faithful to one’s wife without a mistress, or ruling out divorce or serial matrimony, or it may be encouraging a married overseer in contrast to a celibate one. (Johnson, 2001, pp. 213-214) The list continues with temperate, self-controlled, and respectable—terms that will be expanded on in the following verse. As mentioned above, hospitality by inviting people into one’s household would be expected by an “overseer” and the only skill-based item on the list is that they are to be a good teacher.
These leaders are not to be addicted to wine, bullying, or a lovers of money. They are to be peaceable (a-machos in Greek) rather than one who engages in battle (mache), this would exclude a type of macho behavior that some mistake for leadership. As mentioned earlier, the management of one’s own household is an indicator of the possibility of being an leader in the community of the faithful. Just as women were to be submissive in the assembly (2:11) now the children of the “overseer” are also to be submissive. Finally these leaders are not to be recent converts (neophytes, Greek neophutov) so that they may not become overconfident or puffed up and be misled by the devil, but they are also to have a good witness (NRSVue well thought, Greek martupian (where our word martyr comes from) kalos). For these “overseers” there is the need for both a faithful example of a leader within the household and the public facing witness to the church’s faith and righteousness.
The requirements of “deacons” or “servers” is similar to the expectations of an “overseer.” Before drawing too great a distinction between “overseer” and “servers” it is worth noting that:
Paul, for example, describes Timothy (1 Thess 3:2), Phoebe (Rom 16:1), the civil ruler (Rom 13:4), Apollos (1 Cor 3:5), himself (2 Cor 6:4), and even Christ (Rom 15:8) as diakonoi. In Phil 1:1, the deacon is linked with the bishop or overseer, though the relationship between these two is not spelled out (cf. 1 Clem. 42. 4-5; Did. 15.1). Though Paul used this word, as he did “overseer,” to describe a role or function in 1 Timothy the noun clearly refers to a position for which one is tested. (Bassler, 1996, p. 69)
While Paul, Timothy, Apollos, and even Christ all serve, there does seem to be the beginning of a distinctive serving role in the young church. Paul here[1] and other places[2] accepts women in this role. One distinct addition to the description of the deacon is that they are not double-tongued (literally two worded). Thomas Long makes an educated guess about the possible need for this description:
If they indeed were practical helpers in the community, the ones who assisted the elders and bishops in their duties and the ones who did the legwork of running the financial support program for widows, then they would naturally be constantly in and out of homes in the community. If they were people who spike one way in one home and another way in another, if they were gossips who spread rumors and gave one version of events here and a different version there, or if they were duplicitous flatterers who spoke soothing words of comfort to a widow in need and then whispered about her to the next widow, they could easily spread the contagion of divisiveness. (Long, 2016, p. 93)
Like overseers they as men and women are to manage their household before they are entrusted to enter the household of others. They are to hold fast to the mysteries of the faith and not to spread false doctrines and practices. These “servers,” like the “overseers,” can build up the household of faith, or through unserious, deceitful talk, drunkenness, greed, or bad reputation damage the same household.
Although we do not know the details of the conflicts that Paul is writing to Timothy to help him address, the need for Paul to state to aspire to be an overseer is a good thing may continue to indicate that the struggles of the community has made good leaders cautious before assuming these roles in the community. It’s unlikely that Paul goes into this extended discussion of leadership without needing to address the absence of leaders of the proper character in these roles. For Paul the expectations of a good man (or woman) in fulfilling their roles within the household is the minimum threshold that all leaders in the household of faith should surpass.
There are many ways that our world and cultural expectations are different from the world of Paul but the need for ethical leadership remains. I have seen the damage that an unfaithful leader can do in a community and in half of the communities I have served I have had to intentionally rebuild trust between the community and their leaders. The scandals in the Catholic Church as well as Protestant churches have done great harm to the members of those communities and to the reputation of the church and its leaders in the society. New York times columnist Frank Bruni when commenting on the sex scandals in the Catholic church stated:
the evil that an entire institution can do, though it supposedly dedicates itself to good…[and by] the way that a religious organization can behave almost precisely as a corporation does, with fudged words, twisted logic and a transcendent instinct for self-protection that frequently trump the principled handing of a specific grievance or a particular victim. (Long, 2016, p. 91)
This is one of the passages that I have wrestled with personally since my divorce in 2010[3], and then my remarriage five years later. Although I have on occasion been told by another person in the church that I shouldn’t be a pastor because of my divorce I was fortunate to have a bishop as well as colleagues who prayed for me, offered counsel and guidance. I do think we underprepare people entering ministry and their families for the pressure of trying to balance their household and the demands of the household of faith.
Trying to set guidelines for leadership within the church takes wisdom and grace, but those set aside for leadership are held to a higher standard. An unfaithful leader can cause immense harm to their fellow members of the body of Christ, can destroy a congregation and damage the Church’s reputation, and unfortunately the desire to protect an institution’s reputation has often perpetuated the harm. Normally we focus on sexuality as the location of the damage, but I have also seen congregations damaged by the addiction of a leader, financial mismanagement, and bullying. Being above reproach, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, and a faithful teacher while managing one’s relationships and household is a daunting task but it is also a noble one for the one called to such a ministry of overseeing a community of faith or the service ministries of the church.
1 Timothy 3: 14-16 The Mystery at the Heart of the Gospel
14 I hope to come to you soon, but I am writing these instructions to you so that, 15 if I am delayed, you may know how one ought to behave in the household of God, which is the church of the living God, the pillar and support of the truth. 16 Without any doubt, the mystery of godliness is great: He was revealed in flesh, vindicated in spirit, seen by angels, proclaimed among gentiles, believed in throughout the world, taken up in glory.
Paul would be known to the community in Ephesus since, according to Acts 19, he spent two years there. As mentioned previously, Paul went to Macedonia and then sent Timothy back to Ephesus to address some of the problems reported in this letter. I know that a lot of very intelligent readers in the last two centuries have viewed this letter as written at a later date by a later author writing in Paul’s name, but there are a number of sections like this one where this later writer would have to fabricate not only these more personal addresses, but also why write a letter about two famous members of the church addressing issues at Ephesus when the people in that congregation would know Paul and Timothy, know their own situation (which is not presented in a flattering manner in this letter) likely within a generation of Paul’s death. Is it possible that someone later wrote 1 Timothy? It is possible, but to me the easier reading is that Paul is addressing his hope to return to the community at Ephesus in a world where travel is not quick or reliable. For later generations of Christians, we are the beneficiaries of Paul’s attempt to support the early Christian communities through writing letters which we continue to have.
Paul throughout his letters often talks about ‘mystery’ when referring to the revelation which led to his ministry among the Gentiles (Romans 11:25; Ephesians 3: 3-9; Colossians 1: 26-27). Here in 1 Timothy the ‘mystery of faith’ (v.9) and ‘the mystery of godliness’ (v. 16) appears to be linked to the confession of faith which concludes verse sixteen. What the NRSVue translates as ‘godliness’ is the Greek eusebia which is normally translated piety or religion, so Paul here is talking about the ‘mystery’ of the faith as it is practiced. Confessional fragments are common in Paul’s letters, the most famous examples being Philippians 2: 5-11 and Colossians 1: 15-23, and just as the later church would develop creeds as a teaching method of handing on the faith, the church of Paul’s day had these fragments which illuminate the narrative content of the faith of these followers of Jesus. Yet, as James D.G. Dunn states there is also a sense that there is a mysterious aspect to the faith, “requiring someone skilled in understanding and exposition to unveil it to initiates.” (NIB XI: 807)
The six lines in the NRSVue are short but focus on key points of the story of Jesus. Jesus was revealed ‘in the flesh’ a key Pauline term which here reflects the humanity of Jesus without Paul’s normal negative implication of the flesh’s corruption by sin. Jesus is ‘justified’ (Greek dikiao, NRSVue vindicated) in the Spirit. The NRSVue’s rendering of this term as vindicated obscures this central Pauline word of justification. The Greek angelos (NRSVue angels) can mean angels as heavenly beings but also can generically mean ‘messengers’ and that is likely the intended meaning here, that Jesus was revealed to messengers, like Paul, who would proclaim him among the gentile/nations (Greek ethnos has both meanings: Gentiles as other than Jews and the nations). To me the rendering of ethnos as the nations makes sense in the context where Jesus is believed throughout the world. Finally, Jesus is taken up into glory, echoing the story of the ascension.
[1] There is some debate over the sudden introduction of women in verse 11. Some interpreters view this as referring to the wives of deacons, but many interpreters seem to believe that this is a role open to women in Ephesus.
